Austria-Hungary's Annexation Of Bosnia: Prelude To Wwi

The complex history of Bosnia and Herzegovina during World War I is inextricably linked to the country's status as a protectorate of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. While the region was technically under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire following the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, Austria-Hungary was granted the right to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it did for three decades before formally annexing it in 1908. This annexation, known as the Bosnian Crisis, caused a diplomatic uproar and inflamed nationalist sentiments in the region, particularly in Serbia, which had its own ambitions for the territory. The crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia, and laid the groundwork for World War I. During the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under Austro-Hungarian military rule, and Bosnian Serbs faced repressive measures due to their suspected disloyalty.

The Bosnian Crisis

Causes and Context

The mid-1870s witnessed violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans, which were met with violent and repressive responses from the Turks. In the Budapest Conventions of 1877, Russia and Austria-Hungary agreed that Russia would annex Bessarabia, while Austria-Hungary would remain neutral during the pending war with the Turks. As compensation, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's control of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the Russians declared war, they drove the Turks back to within a few miles of Constantinople. However, the London Straits Convention of 1841, enforced by Britain and Austria-Hungary, prevented the Russians from gaining control of the Straits of Constantinople, bottling up the Russian fleet in the Black Sea. The Russians then imposed the Treaty of San Stefano on the Ottomans, which declared that Bosnia and Herzegovina would be jointly occupied by Russian and Austrian troops.

The Treaty of San Stefano was overturned by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, which gave Austria-Hungary special rights in the Ottoman Empire's provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. Despite this legal right, the Treaty of Berlin did not specify the final disposition of the provinces. In 1881, both Germany and Russia endorsed Austria's right to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, by 1897, under Tsar Nicholas II, Russia withdrew its support for the annexation.

In 1903, King Alexander Obrenovic of Serbia was assassinated, and the pro-Russian Karađorđević dynasty came to power. The new Serbian government sought to expand into Bosnia and Herzegovina, causing relations with Austria-Hungary to deteriorate. Russia's ability to support Serbia was diminished following its defeat in the 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War and subsequent internal unrest.

Annexation and Reaction

By 1907, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Alois Aehrenthal began planning to solidify Austria-Hungary's position towards Serbia through the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He saw an opportunity in a letter from Russian Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky, who proposed the annexation as part of a deal to secure better access to the Turkish Straits for Russian naval vessels. On 15-16 September 1908, the two ministers met at Buchlau Castle in Moravia and agreed on a plan. However, Aehrenthal acted faster than expected, announcing the annexation on 5 October 1908, without providing specific dates to Izvolsky.

The annexation was met with widespread opposition and protests across Europe. Izvolsky vehemently denounced the action and demanded an international conference on Bosnia. Pan-Slavic forces mobilised inside Russia, and mass demonstrations broke out across the continent. Britain, France, Italy, and Russia denounced the violation of international agreements. Turkey was surprised but quieted by a cash payment. The angriest reaction came from Serbia, which called for revenge and began setting up secret guerrilla bands, plotting insurrection in Bosnia.

Outcome and Impact

The Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Causes and Context

• Preserving Influence in the Balkans: Austria-Hungary sought to preserve and expand its influence in the Balkans, a region that was coveted by many powers, including Russia, its rival for dominance in the area.
• Weakness of the Ottoman Sultan: The rebellion by the Young Turks in 1908, which established a constitutional government in the Ottoman Empire, presented an opportunity for Austria-Hungary to assert its dominance before the new Turkish regime could regain control over Bosnia and Herzegovina.
• Containment of South Slav Movement: Austria-Hungary aimed to contain the rising South Slav movement and prevent the unification of Bosnia and Herzegovina with other Slavic countries, such as Serbia, which had its own pan-Slavic ambitions.
• Infrastructural Investments: Between 1878 and 1918, Austria-Hungary had made significant investments in the infrastructural development of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and it wanted to protect its economic and strategic interests in the region.

Events Leading to the Annexation

• Congress of Berlin (1878): The Congress of Berlin awarded Austria-Hungary the right to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the legal title remained with the Ottoman Empire.
• Budapest Conventions (1877): Russia and Austria-Hungary reached an agreement where Russia would annex Bessarabia, and Austria-Hungary would remain neutral towards Russia in its pending war with the Ottoman Empire. As compensation, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's control of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
• Treaty of San Stefano: After their victory in the war, the Russians imposed this treaty on the Ottomans, which reneged on the Budapest Conventions and declared that Bosnia and Herzegovina would be jointly occupied by Russian and Austrian troops.
• Treaty of Berlin (1878): This treaty overturned the Treaty of San Stefano. It granted special rights to Austria-Hungary in the Ottoman Empire's provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, including the right to occupy and administer these territories.
• Three Emperors' League Treaty (1881): Both Germany and Russia endorsed Austria's right to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina in this treaty.
• Bilateral Commercial Treaty between Austria and Serbia (1881): This treaty included a secret annexe stating that Serbia would not allow any political or religious intrigue against the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, including in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
• Diplomatic Maneuvering (1897-1907): Russia withdrew its support for Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina under Tsar Nicholas II. Serbia also allowed its obligations under the commercial treaty with Austria to lapse in 1899.
• Change in Serbian Leadership (1903): The assassination of King Alexander Obrenovic of Serbia brought the pro-Russian Karađorđević dynasty to the throne, shifting power to elements interested in expansion into Bosnia.
• Formulation of Annexation Plan (1907): Alois Aehrenthal, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, began formulating a plan to solidify Austria-Hungary's position towards Serbia through the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
• Meeting at Buchlau Castle (1908): Aehrenthal met with his Russian counterpart, Alexander Izvolsky, and secured an agreement for Russian neutrality in exchange for Austrian support for opening the Dardanelles straits to Russian warships.

The Annexation and its Aftermath

On October 5, 1908, Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, declaring his determination to grant the provinces an autonomous and constitutional regime under his authority. This unilateral action sparked widespread protests and condemnation from Serbia, Montenegro, and all the Great Powers, leading to a diplomatic crisis. Serbia mobilized its army and demanded compensation, while pan-Slavic forces inside Russia mobilized in opposition. The crisis was eventually resolved in March 1909, with the amendment of the Treaty of Berlin and the recognition of the annexation by the Ottoman Empire and other powers. However, the crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbors, especially Serbia, and contributed to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.

The Young Turk Revolution

The revolution began as a response to the oppressive rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The Young Turks, a diverse group of liberals, nationalists, and military officers, sought to restore the constitution of 1876, which the Sultan had suspended, and to implement political and social reforms. They believed that constitutional rule and modernization were necessary to save the empire from disintegration and outside influence.

In July 1908, the Young Turk Revolution commenced with a military uprising in Macedonia, quickly spreading to other parts of the empire, including Bosnia. The rebels demanded the reinstatement of the constitution and the establishment of a parliamentary system. Facing widespread revolt and with limited options, Sultan Abdul Hamid II acquiesced to their demands, marking a significant victory for the Young Turks.

The revolution had a profound impact on Bosnia. Firstly, it ended the direct rule of Austria-Hungary over Bosnia, which had been imposed in 1878. While Austria-Hungary retained a strong influence, the revolution sparked hopes for greater autonomy and self-governance among Bosnians. Additionally, the Young Turks' emphasis on constitutionalism and reform resonated with many Bosnians, who sought to modernize their society and gain equal rights within the empire.

The period following the revolution saw a flourishing of political activity in Bosnia. Various political parties emerged, representing different ethnic and religious groups, including the Bosnian Serbs, Croats, and Muslims. This multi-ethnic political landscape, however, was also fraught with tensions, as competing nationalist agendas and external influences, particularly from Serbia, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, contributed to a volatile environment that would ultimately play a role in the outbreak of World War I.

In conclusion, the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, with its call for constitutionalism and reform, had a significant impact on Bosnia. It stirred hopes for autonomy, fueled political activism, and set the stage for the complex and often contentious political dynamics that characterized the region in the years leading up to World War I. While the revolution brought about important changes, it also highlighted the deep-seated ethnic and nationalist tensions that would continue to shape Bosnia's trajectory in the decades to come.

The Russo-Turkish War

The Road to War

In the mid-1870s, a series of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans, coupled with violent and repressive responses from the Turks, set the stage for the conflict. The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, sought to intervene against the Ottomans and obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary through the Budapest Conventions of 1877. According to this agreement, Russia would annex Bessarabia, and Austria-Hungary would remain neutral towards Russia in the impending war with the Ottomans. As compensation, Russia recognised Austria-Hungary's control of Bosnia-Herzegovina.

The War Unfolds

Shortly after the Budapest Conventions, the Russians declared war, and after some initial setbacks, they pushed the Ottoman forces back to the gates of Constantinople. The Western European powers then intervened, and as a result, Russia was able to claim provinces in the Caucasus and annex the Budjak region. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, which had already enjoyed de facto sovereignty for some years, formally proclaimed their independence from the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria, which had been under Ottoman rule for almost five centuries, emerged as an autonomous state with Russian support.

Aftermath and Impact

The war had significant consequences for the region. The Treaty of San Stefano in March 1878 between Russia and Turkey ceded parts of Armenia and modern Bulgarian territories to Russia. It also granted freedom to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro from Ottoman rule and gave autonomy to Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Bulgaria becoming autonomous under Russian protection. However, the gains made by Russia worried Britain and Austria-Hungary, who enforced the Treaty of Berlin in July 1878, limiting Russia's territorial acquisitions.

The Russo-Japanese War

The Origins of the War

At the turn of the 20th century, Russia was a significant world power, with vast territories in Europe and Asia under its control. However, its shipping centre in Vladivostok was closed for much of the winter, so the empire sought a warm-water port in the Pacific Ocean. Russia's sights were set on the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, the latter located in present-day China. Russia already leased a port on the Liaodong Peninsula, Port Arthur, from China, but it wanted a base of operations firmly under its control.

Japan, meanwhile, was concerned about Russian influence in the region, particularly since the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which Russia had provided military support to the Qing Dynasty in China. With Russia's history of military aggression, Japan initially sought a deal, offering to cede control of Manchuria (northeastern China) in exchange for influence over Korea. However, Russia refused this offer and counter-proposed that Korea north of the 39th parallel serve as a neutral zone.

The War Begins

As negotiations broke down, Japan opted for war, staging a surprise attack on the Russian navy at Port Arthur on February 8, 1904. Japan formally declared war on the same day, but the leaders of the Russian Empire did not receive notice of Japan's intentions until several hours after the attack. Czar Nicholas II had been assured by his advisors that the Japanese would not challenge Russia militarily.

Under the leadership of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, the Japanese Imperial Navy sent torpedo boats to attack Russian naval vessels, damaging three of the largest: Tsesarevich, Retvizan, and Pallada. The ensuing Battle of Port Arthur began the next day. Although the rest of the Russian Far East Fleet was largely protected within the harbour at Port Arthur, the attacks successfully dissuaded the Russians from taking the battle to the open seas.

The Battle of Port Arthur

While Russia avenged the initial attack with mines of its own, severely damaging two Japanese battleships, the Japanese retained the upper hand at Port Arthur, continuing to bombard the harbour with heavy shelling. After attempts to attack Russian fortifications on land failed, resulting in significant casualties for the Japanese, the Japanese persisted and eventually gained positions on land in the vicinity of the harbour, from which they fired on Russian ships moored in the bay.

By the end of 1904, the Japanese navy had sunk every ship in Russia's Pacific fleet and gained control of the garrison on a hill overlooking the harbour. In early January 1905, the commander of the Port Arthur garrison, Major General Anatoly Stessel, decided to surrender, much to the surprise of both the Japanese and his superiors in Moscow. Stessel was later convicted of treason and sentenced to death for his decision, though he was ultimately pardoned.

The Battles of Mukden and Tsushima

With the Russians distracted and demoralized by the fall of Port Arthur, Japanese ground forces set about controlling the Korean peninsula, landing at Incheon in modern-day South Korea. Within two months, they had taken over Seoul and the rest of the peninsula.

At the end of April 1904, Japanese ground forces began planning an attack on Russian-controlled Manchuria in northeastern China. During the first major land battle of the war, the Battle of Yalu River, the Japanese successfully attacked the Russian Eastern Detachment, forcing them to retreat back toward Port Arthur.

The next notable land battle of the conflict began on February 20, 1905, when Japanese forces attacked the Russians at Mukden. Days of harsh fighting ensued, with the Japanese eventually forcing the Russians into full retreat. On March 10, after three weeks of fighting, the Russians suffered significant casualties and were pushed back to northern Mukden. Although the Japanese had achieved an important victory, they too sustained significant casualties.

With Russia's Baltic Fleet finally arriving as reinforcements in May 1905, the Japanese navy, again under the command of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, attempted to block their path to Vladivostok and engaged them in battle at the Tsushima Straits on May 27, 1905. By the end of the next day, the Russians had lost eight battleships and more than 5,000 men. Only three vessels ultimately made it to Vladivostok. The decisive victory forced the Russians to pursue a peace agreement.

The Treaty of Portsmouth

The Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, was signed by both parties on September 5, 1905. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia turned over Port Arthur to Japan and retained the northern half of Sakhalin Island, while Japan gained control of the Liaodong Peninsula and the South Manchurian Railway, and both sides agreed to evacuate southern Manchuria, which was restored to China. Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the talks.

The Aftermath

Although Japan had won the war decisively, victory had come at a severe cost, leaving the country's coffers virtually empty. As a result, Japan did not have the negotiating power many expected. The Russians also agreed to recognize Japanese control of the Korean peninsula, which the Empire of Japan formally annexed in 1910. The Russo-Japanese War shifted the balance of global power, marking the first time in modern history that an Asian nation had defeated a European one in military combat. It also marked the beginning of warfare involving global powers in the Pacific region.

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