Ottoman Empire's Reach: Did They Occupy Austria?

The Ottoman Empire and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy were involved in a series of conflicts from the 16th to the 18th centuries. The Ottoman Empire's expansionist policies and military campaigns in Europe posed a significant threat to European powers, including Austria. The two empires fought multiple wars, with battles often taking place in Hungary and other neighbouring regions. While the Ottomans made significant early gains, the Habsburgs, supported by other European powers, eventually assembled a large coalition known as the Holy League to counter the Ottoman threat. The Great Turkish War ended with a decisive victory for the Holy League at Zenta, marking a turning point in the conflict. Despite intermittent tensions and further conflicts, Austria and the Ottoman Empire never engaged in direct warfare again and were even allied during World War I.

The Ottoman-Habsburg Wars of the 16th-18th centuries

The Ottoman-Habsburg Wars were fought from the 16th to the 18th centuries between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy, which was supported at times by the Kingdom of Hungary, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Holy Roman Empire, and Habsburg Spain. The wars were dominated by land campaigns in Hungary, including Transylvania (now in Romania), Vojvodina (now in Serbia), Croatia, and central Serbia.

The Rise of the Ottomans

By the 16th century, the Ottomans had become a serious threat to European powers. Ottoman ships swept away Venetian possessions in the Aegean and Ionian seas, and Ottoman-supported Barbary pirates seized Spanish possessions in the Maghreb. The Protestant Reformation, French-Habsburg rivalry, and the numerous civil conflicts of the Holy Roman Empire distracted Christians from their conflict with the Ottomans. Meanwhile, the Ottomans contended with the Persian Safavid Empire and, to a lesser extent, the Mamluk Sultanate, which was defeated and incorporated into the Ottoman Empire.

Initial Ottoman Conquests in Europe

Initially, Ottoman conquests in Europe made significant gains with a decisive victory at Mohács, reducing around one-third of central Hungary to the status of an Ottoman tributary. After King Louis II of Hungary was killed at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, his widow Queen Mary of Austria fled to her brother, the Archduke of Austria, Ferdinand I, who was then elected King of Bohemia. This clashed with the Turkish objective of placing the puppet John Zápolya on the throne, setting the stage for a conflict between the two powers.

In 1527, Ferdinand attacked Hungary, a state severely weakened by civil conflict, in an attempt to drive out John Zápolya and enforce his authority there. John was unable to prevent Ferdinand's campaigning, which led to the capture of Buda and several other key settlements along the Danube. Despite this, the Ottoman Sultan was slow to react and only came to the aid of his vassal in 1529, launching an army of about 120,000 men.

The First Siege of Vienna

The Sultan arrived at Vienna in September 1529. Ferdinand's army was outnumbered roughly 7 to 1, and the walls of Vienna were an invitation to Ottoman cannon. Nonetheless, Ferdinand defended Vienna with great vigour. By October, after much mining and counter-mining, the Ottomans abandoned the siege. The retreat of the Ottoman army was hampered by the resistance of Pozsony, which attempted to attack Ottoman forces. Early snowfall made matters worse, and it would be another three years before Suleiman could campaign in Hungary.

The Little War

After the defeat at Vienna, the Ottoman Sultan had to turn his attention to other parts of his domain. Taking advantage of this absence, Archduke Ferdinand launched an offensive in 1530, recapturing Esztergom and other forts. An assault on Buda was only thwarted by the presence of Ottoman Turkish soldiers. Much like the previous Austrian offensive, the return of the Ottomans forced the Habsburgs in Austria on the defensive once more. In 1532, Suleiman sent a massive Ottoman army to take Vienna. However, the army took a different route to Kőszeg. After a defence by a mere 700-strong Croatian force, the defenders accepted an "honourable" surrender of the fortress in return for their safety. After this, the Sultan withdrew, content with his success and recognizing the limited Austrian gains in Hungary, while at the same time forcing Ferdinand to recognize John Zápolya as King of Hungary.

The Long Turkish War

In 1552, two Ottoman armies crossed the border into the Hungarian kingdom. One of them, led by Hadim Ali Pasha, started a campaign against the western and central part of the country, while the second army, led by Kara Ahmed Pasha, attacked the fortresses in the Banat region. Ottoman troops conquered nine-tenths of the castles in the Hont and Nógrád counties. The Habsburg army under Erasmus von Teufel made a belated attempt to stop the Ottoman troops but was completely defeated in a two-day battle.

The Great Turkish War

In 1683, after 15 months of mobilizing forces, the Grand Vizier reached Vienna to find the city well defended and prepared. Worst of all for the Vizier were the numerous alliances established by the Austrians, including one with Jan Sobieski. When the siege of Vienna began, the Polish King and his coalition of Germans and Poles arrived just as Vienna's defence became untenable. In a decisive battle, the Ottomans were defeated and the siege was lifted.

The End of the Wars

The Great Turkish War ended with a decisive Holy League victory at Zenta. The wars ended after Austria's participation in the war of 1787-1791, which Austria fought allied with Russia. Intermittent tension between Austria and the Ottoman Empire continued throughout the nineteenth century, but they never fought each other in a war and ultimately found themselves allied in World War I, after which both empires were dissolved.

The Austro-Turkish War of 1788-1791

The Austrians faced several challenges, including slow Russian preparations that led to Ottoman concentration on Belgrade, and a reliance on Russian support in Moldavia, which only began in late 1788. In July 1788, the Ottomans crossed the Danube, broke into the Austrian Banat, and caused logistical issues with an influx of 50,000 Serb refugees. Joseph II dispatched 20,400 soldiers to the Banat, where a Serbian Free Corps of 5,000 soldiers had been established, fighting for the liberation of Serbia and unification under Habsburg rule. The Austrians also suffered from disease and supply shortages.

Later in the war, the tide turned in favour of Austria. The Turks were expelled from parts of Croatia, the Banat, and Bosnia, and Belgrade was taken by Field Marshal Laudon in a three-week campaign. Habsburg-occupied Serbia (1788-1791) was established, and the Austrian army participated in victories at Focşani and Rymnik, under the command of Suvorov, and Josias of Saxe-Coburg conquered Bucharest. However, the war had negative effects on Austria's economy and progress towards a modern civil society, with rising food prices, taxes, and conscription.

The war ended with the Treaty of Sistova in August 1791. Austria's gains were limited, retaining only the town of Orsova and a strip of Croatian land near the Bosnian-Croatian border. The war was a significant event in the long period of national decline for the Ottoman Empire. It also had important consequences for Serbia, as it became clear that Austria was not committed to liberating Serbia from Ottoman rule, leading to a shift in Serbian plans towards Russia for support.

The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908

The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina was a lengthy process that started in 1384 or 1386 with the first Ottoman attacks on the Kingdom of Bosnia. The Kingdom of Bosnia fell to the Ottomans in 1463, and Herzegovina gradually fell by 1482. However, it took another century for the western parts of present-day Bosnia to succumb to Ottoman attacks, with the capture of Bihać in 1592 marking the westernmost frontier of what is now Bosnia.

The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina resulted in significant changes to the region, most notably the introduction and spread of Islam. By the early 1600s, almost two-thirds of the population was Muslim, and this conversion appears to have been a gradual and largely peaceful process. The Ottomans established various administrative units and made architectural investments during their rule, and cities like Sarajevo and Mostar were developed during this time.

The Ottoman rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina lasted from 1463/1482 to 1908, when Bosnia-Herzegovina officially became part of Austria-Hungary. The end of Ottoman rule in the region came about due to the Turkish revolution of 1908, which aimed to overthrow the Sultan's autocratic power. This ultimately led to the annexation of Bosnia by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, sparking political uproar and contributing to the causes of World War I.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792

In May and June 1787, Catherine II of Russia made a triumphal procession through Novorossiya and the annexed Crimea, alongside her ally, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II. These events, along with rumours of Catherine's Greek Plan and friction caused by mutual complaints of infringements of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, stirred up public opinion in Constantinople. The British and French ambassadors lent their unconditional support to the Ottoman war party.

On 19 August 1787, Russia declared war, and the Ottomans imprisoned the Russian ambassador, Yakov Bulgakov. Ottoman preparations were inadequate, and the moment was ill-chosen, as Russia and Austria were now in alliance. The Ottomans mustered forces throughout their domain, and Süleyman Bey from Anatolia personally led 4,000 soldiers to the front. The Ottoman Empire opened their offensive with an attack on two fortresses near Kinburn in southern Ukraine. Russian General Alexander Suvorov held off these attacks, securing Crimea. In Moldavia, Russian troops captured the Ottoman cities of Chocim and Jassy, and Ochakov fell after a six-month siege. All civilians in the captured cities were massacred by order of Prince Grigory Potemkin.

Despite suffering defeats against the Russians, the Ottoman Empire found some success against the Austrians, led by Emperor Joseph II, in Serbia and Transylvania. By 1789, the Ottoman Empire was being pushed back in Moldavia by Russian and Austrian forces. On 1 August, the Russians under Suvorov defeated the Ottomans at Focsani, followed by another victory at Rymnik on 22 September. The Russians then drove the Ottomans away from the Râmnicul Sărat river. Suvorov was given the title of Count Rymniksky following the battle.

The balance shifted further towards Austria as the Turks were expelled from parts of Croatia, the Banat, and parts of Bosnia, and Belgrade was taken in a three-week campaign by Field Marshal Laudon. The Austrian army also participated in the victories of Focşani and Rymnik, de facto under the command of Suvorov, and Josias of Saxe-Coburg conquered Bucharest.

A Greek revolt, which further drained the Ottoman war effort, brought about a truce between the Ottoman Empire and Austria. Meanwhile, the Russians continued their advance, and Suvorov captured the Ottoman fortress of Izmail at the entrance of the Danube in December 1790. A final Ottoman defeat at Machin, coupled with Russian concerns about Prussia entering the war, led to a truce agreed upon on 31 July 1791.

The Treaty of Jassy was signed on 9 January 1792, recognising Russia's 1783 annexation of the Crimean Khanate. Yedisan (Odessa and Ochakov) was also ceded to Russia, and the Dniester was made the Russian frontier in Europe. The Ottoman war goal to reclaim Crimea had failed, and if not for the French Revolution, their situation could have been much worse.

The Ottoman-Algerian victory in 1541

Charles V's motivations for the attack included a desire for revenge following the recent siege of Buda. He amassed a large fleet with over 500 sails and 24,000 soldiers, including distinguished commanders such as Hernán Cortés, the conqueror of Mexico. However, the expedition was plagued by inadequate planning and unfavourable weather conditions. The fleet endured storms and difficult weather, causing delays and damaging ships. Despite these challenges, Charles V pressed on and his troops began disembarking on October 23, 1541, establishing a headquarters surrounded by German troops. They were met with resistance from Algerian forces but managed to surround the city, except for the northern part.

The following day, the weather deteriorated further, with heavy rains wreaking havoc on the fleet. Many ships lost their anchors, and some were wrecked onshore or sank. As more troops attempted to land, the Algerians launched sorties, attacking the newly arrived forces. Charles V found himself surrounded and was only saved by the Knights of Malta, who put up a fierce resistance. Eventually, Charles V was forced to abandon his position and retreat to a safer harbour at Cape Matifu, located five miles east of Algiers. The remaining troops then sailed to Béjaïa, a Spanish harbour at the time. Charles V finally departed for the open sea on November 23 and reached Cartagena in southeast Spain on December 3.

The expedition ended in a disastrous failure for Charles V, with heavy losses. Approximately 150 ships were lost, along with numerous sailors and soldiers. In contrast, the successful defence of Algiers earned Hassan Agha, the governor of Algiers, the title of Beylerbey. The victory also emboldened the Algerians, who took advantage of the weakened Spanish forces to attack Mers-el-Kebir, the harbour of the Spanish base of Oran, in July 1542.

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