Austria-Hungary's Readiness For Wwi: A Critical Analysis

Austria-Hungary was a major European power before World War I. It was a large, multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe, geographically the second-largest country in Europe and the third-most populous. It was formed in 1867 by a compromise agreement between Vienna and Budapest, resulting in a dual monarchy. The empire was ruled by Emperor Franz Joseph, who was both head of state and government.

Austria-Hungary was a relatively young nation-state, formed by the merger of two older states. It was a diverse empire, with 11 major ethno-language groups scattered across the empire, including Germans, Hungarians, Poles, Czechs, Ukrainians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croatians, Serbs, Italians and Romanians. The empire's political organisation was complex, with the two kingdoms of Austria and Hungary retaining a degree of autonomy, with their own parliaments, prime ministers, cabinets and domestic self-government.

The empire's military force was essentially comprised of three armies: two retained by the kingdoms of Austria and Hungary, and a newly created force called the Imperial and Royal Army. The latter was perpetually short of qualified officers, and three-quarters of those it had were Austrian, creating a language barrier between officers and their men. Despite these difficulties, the Austro-Hungarian imperial army was a professional fighting force.

Austria-Hungary's industrial growth and modernisation in the late 1800s led to improvements in trade, employment and living standards. By the early 20th century, Vienna, the capital of the empire, was a bustling modern city. The empire's annual growth was the second-fastest in Europe, behind that of Germany.

However, the empire's internal political and ethnic divisions created problems for its military. The two older armies were protected by their respective parliaments and received more funding and better equipment and training than the Imperial and Royal Army. This created jealousies and grievances, and undermined the effectiveness of the imperial army.

The Austro-Hungarian Army

The army's problems were largely due to the polity it served. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a multi-national constitutional monarchy consisting of two sovereign states with a single monarch. The army reflected the diversity of the empire, and this presented serious problems, particularly regarding language. Since regiments were organised along national lines, officers often had to learn several languages in addition to their native tongue. By the early 20th century, this standard had been abandoned in practice, and most officers resented having to learn the languages of the troops they commanded. This created a lack of cohesion within the army.

In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and attacked Austria-Hungary, leading to bloody fighting on the Italian front. The Austro-Hungarian Army, working under a unified command with the Germans, participated in the successful Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive and, later that year, conquered Serbia together with the German and Bulgarian armies. In 1916, the Russians focused their attacks on the Austro-Hungarian Army in the Brusilov Offensive, and the Austrian armies took massive losses, never fully recovering.

The performance of the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I was mediocre, and the army was often dependent on German assistance. The army was plagued by supply shortages, low morale, and a high casualty rate. The army's composition of multiple ethnicities with different languages and customs also seriously affected its operational capabilities. By 1917, the Austro-Hungarian Army was operating on the Eastern Front as a mere auxiliary of the German Army. The last two successes for the Austrians—the Conquest of Romania and the Caporetto Offensive—were German-assisted operations. The Austro-Hungarian Army was officially dissolved in 1918 with the disestablishment of Austria-Hungary following the end of World War I.

The July Crisis

Austria-Hungary sought to inflict a military blow on Serbia, to demonstrate its own strength and to dampen Serbian support for Yugoslav nationalism, viewing it as a threat to the unity of its multi-national empire. However, wary of the reaction of Russia (a major supporter of Serbia), Vienna sought a guarantee from its ally, Germany, that Berlin would support Austria in any conflict. Germany guaranteed its support through what came to be known as the "blank cheque", but urged Austria-Hungary to attack quickly to localise the war and avoid drawing in Russia.

Austria-Hungary made its ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July; before Serbia replied, Russia ordered a secret, but noticed, partial mobilisation of its armed forces. Though Russia's military leadership knew they were not yet strong enough for a general war, they believed that the Austro-Hungarian grievance against Serbia was a pretext orchestrated by Germany, and considered a forceful response to be the best course of action.

Russia’s partial mobilisation—the first major military action not undertaken by a direct participant in the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia—increased the willingness of Serbia to defy the threat of an Austro-Hungarian attack; it also alarmed the German leadership, having not anticipated the idea of needing to fight Russia before France.

The Balkan Front

There had already been two wars fought in the Balkans in 1912 and 1913. The first pitted Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece against the Ottomans, with the aim of liberating Christian peoples from Muslim Turk rule. In 1913, Bulgaria, displeased with the spoils from the 1912 war, attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece. The Bulgarians were pushed back into their own territory and then set upon by the Ottomans and Romanians. When the fighting stopped, Bulgaria had lost nearly all its 1912 gains. This would be a major factor in Bulgaria joining the Central Powers in the coming conflict.

On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war against Serbia and started shelling Belgrade, Serbia's capital, the following day. The Austrians numbered about 270,000 men, while the Serbs fielded about 180,000, though many were battle-hardened from the Balkan Wars. From August through December, the Austrians launched three offensives against the Serbs. Though the Serbs had to retreat from Belgrade, they managed to push the invaders back and regained their capital. By the end of the year, the Austrians were back in their own territory.

Late in 1915, Germany convinced Bulgaria to enter the war on the side of the Central Powers. With Bulgaria as an ally, the Germans were able to use its railways to support the Ottoman Turks, who were struggling in the Middle East. The Bulgarian Army, along with a German Army and an Austro-Hungarian Army, prepared for a major offensive against the Serbs. In October, the Germans and Austrians attacked Serbia from the north, and the Bulgarians attacked from the east. The British and French negotiated with neutral Greece and landed troops at Salonika, hoping to drive north into Bulgaria to relieve the pressure on the Serbs. However, the Bulgarians held them off roughly along the Greek border, and the Serbs were driven steadily back by the three Central Powers armies. The Great Serbian Retreat had begun.

The remnants of the Serbian Army, the Serb King, and many civilians made their way west over the Albanian mountains in the dead of winter. The old men, the Cheechas, manned the artillery and held up the advancing armies so the younger troops could escape. Allied ships managed to transport the Serbs to Corfu, a Greek island just off the southern Albanian coast. The victorious Central Powers occupied Serbia, but the Serbian Army still existed.

In June 1916, the Greeks entered the war for the Allies. After a prolonged buildup, a combined Allied Army of French, British, Greek units, and the Serbian Army, transported from Corfu to Salonika, attacked north from Greece in September 1918. The Bulgarians were thrown back and sued for peace, and the Allies continued north, pushing back the Germans and Austro-Hungarians until Serbia was liberated in October. The Allies were preparing to invade Hungary when the Armistice was signed on November 11, 1918.

The fighting in the Balkans started on the first day of the war (July 28, 1914) and continued until the last day (November 11, 1918). The Balkan Front existed longer than any other front, including the Western Front.

The Eastern Front

1914: The Outbreak of War and Initial Campaigns

The Russian invasion of East Prussia in 1914 was completely defeated, while the advance into Austria-Hungary stalled in the Carpathians. The Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was the pivotal decision that began World War I.

1915: The Austro-Hungarian-German Advance into Russia

In 1915, Germany and Austria-Hungary launched a joint offensive into Russia, defeating Russian forces in Galicia and Poland and causing Russia to abandon the Polish salient, parts of Belarus and the Baltic region, and Galicia. However, the campaigns of 1914–1915 failed to achieve Germany's objective of taking Russia out of the war.

1916: Romania Enters the War

In 1916, Romania entered the war on the side of the Allies, but was quickly overrun by Germany. The Brusilov Offensive, led by General Aleksei Brusilov, was a large-scale Russian assault against Austro-Hungarian forces in Galicia. Innovative tactics and superior numbers allowed the Russians to overwhelm the Austrians, forcing Germany to redeploy divisions from the Western Front and inflicting over one million casualties.

1917: The Russian Revolution

The February Revolution of 1917 toppled the Russian monarchy, creating the Provisional Government. The October Revolution then brought the Bolsheviks to power, who signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers in March 1918, taking Russia out of the war.

The Italian Front

Battles of the Isonzo

The First Battle of the Isonzo began on 23 June 1915, with Italian forces outnumbering the Austrians three-to-one. However, the Austrians occupied higher ground, and the Italians failed to penetrate their defensive lines. The Italians recuperated and launched the Second Battle of the Isonzo on 18 July 1915, managing to overrun Mount Batognica but failing to push beyond the river. The Third and Fourth Battles of the Isonzo in October and November 1915 also resulted in stalemate.

The Italians launched the Fifth Battle of the Isonzo on 9 March 1916, capturing the strategic Mount Sabatino. The Sixth Battle of the Isonzo in August 1916 resulted in the capture of Gorizia, boosting Italian morale. The Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Battles of the Isonzo from September to November 1916 accomplished little.

The Asiago Offensive

In May 1916, the Austro-Hungarians began a counteroffensive in Trentino, aiming to break through to the Po River plain. The offensive was initially successful, but the Italians counterattacked and pushed the Austro-Hungarians back to the Tyrol.

Battle of Caporetto

In October 1917, the Austro-Hungarians, with German support, launched the Battle of Caporetto, employing new infiltration tactics. The Italians were routed, and the Austro-Hungarians advanced over 100 km towards Venice. However, they were unable to cross the Piave River, and Italy recovered from the blow, forming a coalition government under Vittorio Emanuele Orlando.

Battle of the Piave River

In June 1918, the Italians launched the Second Battle of the Piave River, which they won decisively, with some 60,000 Austrian and 43,000 Italian soldiers killed.

Battle of Vittorio Veneto

In October 1918, Italy launched the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, targeting Vittorio Veneto. The Italian Army broke through the Austro-Hungarian defensive line, and on 3 November 1918, 300,000 Austro-Hungarian soldiers surrendered. The armistice with Austria was signed at Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918, and Italy entered Trento and Trieste, greeted by the population.

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