Austria-Hungary: Cold War Players Or Spectators?

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was dissolved in 1918, at the end of World War I. The empire was a constitutional monarchy made up of two sovereign states, the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary, with a single monarch, the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary.

The empire was one of the Central Powers in World War I, which began with an Austro-Hungarian declaration of war on the Kingdom of Serbia on 28 July 1914. The war ended with the signing of the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918.

The empire was not involved in the Cold War, which began in the aftermath of World War II, in 1945. However, during the Cold War, Hungary's foreign policy was generally aligned with that of the Soviet Union.

The Kingdom of Hungary was a member of the Axis powers during World War II

Hungary officially joined the Axis in 1940 under pressure from Germany. Although initially hoping to avoid direct involvement in the war, Hungary's participation soon became inevitable. In 1941, Hungarian forces participated in the invasion of Yugoslavia and the invasion of the Soviet Union. While waging war against the Soviet Union, Hungary engaged in secret peace negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom. Hitler discovered this betrayal and, in March 1944, German forces occupied Hungary. When Soviet forces began threatening Hungary, an armistice was signed between Hungary and the USSR by Regent Miklós Horthy. Soon after, Horthy's son was kidnapped by German commandos and Horthy was forced to revoke the armistice. The Regent was then deposed from power, while Hungarian fascist leader Ferenc Szálasi established a new government, with German backing. In 1945, Hungarian and German forces in Hungary were defeated by invading Soviet and Romanian forces.

Approximately 300,000 Hungarian soldiers and 80,000 civilians died during World War II and many cities were damaged, most notably the capital of Budapest. Most Jews in Hungary were protected from deportation to German extermination camps for the first few years of the war. However, from the start of German occupation in 1944, Jews and Roma were deported to the Auschwitz Birkenau Concentration and Extermination Camp. By the end of the war, the death toll was between 450,000 and 606,000 Hungarian Jews and an estimated 28,000 Hungarian Roma. Hungary's borders were returned to their pre-1938 status after its surrender.

The Hungarian People's Republic was established as a socialist state in 1949

The Hungarian People's Republic was established as a one-party socialist state on 20 August 1949 and lasted until 23 October 1989. It was governed by the Hungarian Working People's Party, which was reformed into the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Both parties were under the influence of the Soviet Union.

The Road to the Hungarian People's Republic

Following the occupation of Hungary by the Red Army, the Soviets tried to control Hungarian political affairs. Using force, the Red Army set up police organs to persecute the opposition and assumed this would enable them to seize the upcoming elections. Despite their efforts, in the November 1945 elections, the Hungarian Communist Party was trounced by a Smallholder-led coalition, receiving only 17% of the votes.

The Soviet Union intervened through force once again, resulting in a puppet government that disregarded the coalition, placed communists in important ministerial positions, and imposed several restrictive measures. Communist Interior Minister László Rajk established the ÁVH secret police to suppress political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment, and torture.

In June 1948, the Communists forced the Social Democrats to merge with them to form the Hungarian Working People's Party (MDP). However, the few independent-minded Social Democrats were quickly shunted aside, leaving the MDP as a renamed and enlarged Communist Party.

The Hungarian People's Republic

In the May 1949 elections, voters were presented with a single Communist-dominated list, comprising candidates from all parties and running on a common programme. By this time, there was virtually no opposition left in the country. On 18 August, the newly elected National Assembly passed a new constitution – a near-carbon copy of the Soviet constitution. When it was officially promulgated on 20 August, the country was renamed the "Hungarian People's Republic."

Stalinist Era (1949-1956)

Mátyás Rákosi, now the de facto leader of Hungary, demanded complete obedience from fellow members of the Hungarian Working People's Party. Rákosi's main rival for power was László Rajk, who was then Hungary's Foreign Secretary. Rajk was arrested and, at his trial in September 1949, he made a forced confession, claiming he had been an agent of Miklós Horthy, Leon Trotsky, Josip Broz Tito, and Western imperialism. He was found guilty and executed.

Rákosi rapidly expanded the education system in Hungary, which was mostly an attempt to replace the educated class of the past with what he called a new "working intelligentsia." In addition to some beneficial effects, this measure also included the dissemination of communist ideology in schools and universities. Religious instruction was denounced as propaganda and was gradually eliminated from schools.

Rákosi grossly mismanaged the economy, and the people of Hungary saw living standards fall rapidly. His government became increasingly unpopular, and when Joseph Stalin died in 1953, Mátyás Rákosi was replaced as prime minister by Imre Nagy. However, Rákosi retained his position as general secretary of the Hungarian Working People's Party, and over the next three years, the two men became involved in a bitter struggle for power.

Hungarian Revolution of 1956

As Hungary's new leader, Imre Nagy removed state control of the mass media and encouraged public discussion on changes to the political system and liberalizing the economy. On 9 March 1955, the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party condemned Nagy for rightist deviation, and on 18 April, he was dismissed from his post by a unanimous vote of the National Assembly. Rákosi once again became the leader of Hungary.

Rákosi's power was undermined by a speech made by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956, in which he denounced the policies of Joseph Stalin and his followers in Eastern Europe. On 18 July 1956, Rákosi was forced from power as a result of orders from the Soviet Union. However, he did manage to secure the appointment of his close friend, Ernő Gerő, as his successor.

The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 began on 23 October as a peaceful demonstration of students in Budapest. The students protested for the implementation of several demands, including an end to Soviet occupation. The police made some arrests and tried to disperse the crowd with tear gas. When the protesters attempted to free those who had been arrested, the police opened fire on the crowd, provoking rioting throughout the capital.

Early the following morning, Soviet military units entered Budapest and seized key positions. Citizens and soldiers joined the protesters, chanting "Russians go home" and defacing communist party symbols. The Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party responded to the pressure by appointing the reformer Imre Nagy as the new prime minister.

On 25 October, a mass of protesters gathered in front of the Parliament Building. ÁVH units began shooting into the crowd from the rooftops of neighboring buildings. Some Soviet soldiers returned fire on the ÁVH, mistakenly believing that they were the targets of the shooting. Supplied by arms taken from the ÁVH or given by Hungarian

The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a countrywide uprising against the government of the Hungarian People's Republic and the USSR's geopolitical domination of Hungary

The revolution began in Budapest when university students appealed to the civil populace to join them in protesting against the USSR's domination of Hungary through the Stalinist government of Mátyás Rákosi. A delegation of students entered the building of Magyar Rádió to broadcast their demands for political and economic reforms, but were detained by security guards. When the students outside demanded their release, they were fired upon by the State Protection Authority (ÁVH). Consequently, Hungarians formed revolutionary militias to fight against the ÁVH, and local communist leaders and ÁVH policemen were captured and executed. Political prisoners were released and armed, and local soviets (councils of workers) assumed control of municipal government from the Hungarian Working People's Party. The new government of Imre Nagy disbanded the ÁVH, declared Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, and pledged to re-establish free elections.

The USSR initially seemed willing to negotiate the withdrawal of its army from Hungary, but ultimately decided to crush the revolution. On 4 November 1956, a large Soviet force invaded Budapest and other regions of the country. The Hungarian resistance continued until 10 November. Over 2,500 Hungarians and 700 Soviet troops were killed in the conflict, and 200,000 Hungarians fled as refugees. Mass arrests and denunciations continued for months.

The Hungarian Revolution was a significant event in Hungarian history, unifying practically the entire population in an anti-Soviet and pro-liberty effort. It contributed to the weakening and eventual downfall of the Soviet system.

The Hungarian People's Republic was a member of the Warsaw Pact

The Pact was established as a counterweight to the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the Western Bloc. The Hungarian People's Republic's membership in the Pact was short-lived, however, as the country temporarily withdrew from the Pact during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. The Hungarian Revolution was a countrywide uprising against the government of the Hungarian People's Republic and its subordination to the Soviet Union. The Revolution lasted 12 days before being crushed by Soviet tanks and troops.

Following the Revolution, the Soviet Union sent thousands of troops and tanks to crush the opposition and install a new Soviet-controlled government under János Kádár. The new government of Imre Nagy had declared Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, along with its intention to proclaim Hungarian neutrality. This prompted the Soviet Union to invade Hungary in what became known as Operation Whirlwind. The Soviet Army quickly captured Hungary's airfields, highway junctions, and bridges, and defeated the Hungarian forces.

The Hungarian People's Republic remained a member of the Warsaw Pact until 1989, when opposition forces brought an end to communism in Hungary.

The Hungarian People's Republic was a satellite state of the USSR

The Hungarian People's Republic was a one-party socialist state from 20 August 1949 to 23 October 1989. It was a satellite state of the USSR, governed by the Hungarian Working People's Party from 12 June 1948 until being reformed into the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Both parties were under the influence of the Soviet Union.

The Moscow Conference

Pursuant to the 1944 Moscow Conference, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin agreed that after the war, Hungary would be included in the Soviet sphere of influence. The Hungarian People's Republic (HPR) remained in existence until 1989, when opposition forces brought an end to communism in Hungary.

Consolidating Power

The Communists spent the next year and a half after the Moscow Conference consolidating their hold on power and weakening the other parties. This culminated in October 1947 when the Communists told their non-Communist coalition partners that they had to cooperate with a reconfigured coalition government if they wanted to stay in the country. The process was more or less completed in 1949 when a newly elected legislature chosen from a single Communist-dominated list adopted a Soviet-style constitution, and the country was officially recast as a "people's republic."

Soviet Intervention

Political repression and economic decline led to a nationwide popular uprising in October–November 1956 known as the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, which was the largest single act of dissent in the history of the Eastern Bloc. After initially allowing the Revolution to run its course, the Soviet Union sent thousands of troops and tanks to crush the opposition and install a new Soviet-controlled government under János Kádár, killing thousands of Hungarians and driving hundreds of thousands into exile.

Goulash Communism

By the early 1960s, however, the Kádár government had considerably relaxed its line, implementing a unique form of semi-liberal Communism known as "Goulash Communism". The state allowed imports of certain Western consumer and cultural products, gave Hungarians greater freedom to travel abroad, and significantly rolled back the secret police state. These measures earned Hungary the moniker of the "merriest barrack in the socialist camp" during the 1960s and 1970s.

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