Austria-Hungary: Germany's Friend Or Foe?

Austria-Hungary and Germany's alliance was formed in 1879, surprising many given the differences between the two nations. While they shared a common language and similar culture, Austria-Hungary and Germany were often divided, notably during the Austro-Prussian War. Despite this, their mutual distrust of Russia united them. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian-backed terrorist in 1914, led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia, an ally of Imperial Russia, bringing Germany into World War I. However, the reliability of Austria-Hungary as an ally is questionable, given the differences in aims and strategies between the two nations.

Austria-Hungary and Germany: complicated relations

The relationship between Austria-Hungary and Germany was a complex one, with the two powers often driven apart despite their alliance. The formation of the German Empire in 1871 had always been viewed with a certain ambivalence in Vienna. While there was a secret admiration for Prussian militarism, there was also a sense of eroded self-respect in having to admit to taking second place. This dynamic played out in domestic politics as well, with the strengthening radical wing of the German nationalist movement in the Habsburg Monarchy increasingly becoming oriented towards Berlin rather than Vienna.

Germany, still learning how to handle its newly acquired position as a great power, had little understanding or sympathy for the complex structures and specific problems of the multinational Habsburg Monarchy. The Prussians viewed Austria-Hungary as a relic of the past, representing weariness, decadence, sloppiness, and inconsistency. This led to a number of misjudgments on both sides, with Vienna often overestimating Germany's potential and Germany underestimating the strength of the old Habsburg Monarchy.

Despite their differences, Austria-Hungary and Germany shared a common language and similar culture. More importantly, they were united by their mutual distrust of Russia, which brought them together in an alliance. In 1878, Russia's influence in the Balkans outraged Austria-Hungary, and Germany supported them in reversing Russia's gains at the Congress of Berlin. However, even as allies, Austria-Hungary and Germany had differing aims and were sometimes rivals.

When World War I broke out in 1914, the divergence between the two alliance partners became even more apparent. There were no concrete agreements regarding war aims, and while Austria-Hungary focused on Serbia and the Balkans, Germany's attention was primarily on the conflict with France. There was a surprising lack of military-strategic cooperation between the two allies, and their respective military staffs operated in secrecy from one another.

During the war, Austria-Hungary became increasingly dependent on German assistance due to problems with supplies and reinforcements. This ultimately led to the Germans taking over the supreme command in 1916, with the Austrians giving in to a common high command. While publicly, there was an emphasis on loyalty between the two allies, privately, the Austrian Chief of General Staff referred to Germany as "our secret enemy".

Mutual interests and shared language

The Dual Alliance of 1879 was a defensive pact between Germany and Austria-Hungary, formed by treaty on October 7, 1879. The two powers had mutual interests and a shared language, and the alliance was created to prevent or limit war. They promised to support each other in the event of an attack by Russia and to remain neutral if the other was attacked by another European power, generally understood to be France.

Despite their alliance, Austria-Hungary and Germany were often driven apart. Austria-Hungary had lost confidence after being defeated by the Prussians in 1866, and the rise of a unified German Empire from 1871 was viewed with ambivalence in Vienna. The Austrians had to admit to taking second place to the Germans, and this caused domestic political problems as the German nationalist movement in the Habsburg Monarchy became oriented towards Berlin rather than Vienna. The Prussians, meanwhile, saw Austria-Hungary as a relic of the past, representing weariness, decadence, and inconsistency.

However, the two powers did share a common language and similar culture. They also had mutual economic interests, and the Austrian government realised its political and economic future was linked with that of Germany. This was especially true in the context of the decline of the Ottoman Empire, which created an opportunity for expansion into the Balkans for Austria-Hungary, but also brought it into conflict with its rival to the East, Imperial Russia.

Austria-Hungary's expansion into the Balkans

In the mid-1870s, a series of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans took place, with equally violent and repressive responses from the Turks. The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, wanted to intervene and obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary. In the Budapest Conventions of 1877, the two powers agreed that Russia would annex Bessarabia, and Austria-Hungary would remain neutral towards Russia in the impending war with the Turks. As compensation, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's control of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Russians then declared war on the Ottoman Empire, driving them back to within a few miles of Constantinople. However, the other great powers, particularly Britain and Austria-Hungary, enforced the London Straits Convention of 1841, which bottled up the Russian fleet in the Black Sea. After their victory, the Russians imposed the Treaty of San Stefano on the Ottomans, which included a provision for the joint occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Russian and Austrian troops.

The Treaty of San Stefano was overturned by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, which allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina unilaterally. This occupation turned out to be more challenging than expected, requiring 150,000 Habsburg troops and several weeks of fighting to establish control. The newly acquired lands were placed under the jurisdiction of the common Habsburg Ministry of Finance, as there was internal disagreement over whether they should be part of the Austrian or Hungarian portion of the monarchy.

Italy joins the alliance

Italy joined the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, three years after the formation of the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Triple Alliance was a defensive military pact, with each member promising mutual support in the event of an attack by another great power.

Italy's primary motivation for joining the alliance was to secure support against France, with whom they had colonial rivalries in Africa. Italy, like other European powers, wanted to establish colonies and build an overseas empire. However, Italy's colonial ambitions in Africa quickly brought it into conflict with France. This was reflected in Italy's anger at the French conquest of Tunisia in 1881, which the Italian press dubbed the "Slap of Tunis". By joining the Alliance, Italy guaranteed itself support in the case of foreign aggression.

The addition of Italy to the alliance was significant, as it was the first formal alliance in Europe. Despite this, Italian public opinion remained lukewarm about their country's alignment with Austria-Hungary, a past enemy of Italian unification. When World War I broke out, Italy did not immediately join its allies but instead stayed neutral. In 1915, it joined the Entente powers and declared war on Austria-Hungary, and in 1916, it entered the war against Germany.

The Triple Entente

The Franco-Russian Alliance was designed to counter the Triple Alliance, with France seeking protection from an attack by Germany and aiming to regain Alsace-Lorraine, which had been ceded to Germany in the Treaty of Frankfurt following the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. Russia also shared France's concerns about Germany, as well as fears about the Ottoman Empire controlling the Dardanelles, a vital trade artery.

The Entente Cordiale between France and Britain was formed to resolve colonial disputes, particularly in North Africa, and to counter apparent German expansionism. Britain, which had traditionally controlled the seas, saw the growth of the German navy as a serious threat to its Royal Navy.

The Anglo-Russian Entente resolved long-running disputes over Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet, and helped to address British fears about the Baghdad Railway and potential German expansion in the Near East.

At the start of World War I in 1914, all three members of the Triple Entente entered the war as Allied Powers against the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. Italy, despite being part of the Triple Alliance, did not immediately go to war, instead remaining neutral until 1915 when it joined the Entente powers and declared war on Austria-Hungary and, in 1916, Germany.

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