Austria-Hungary, Serbia: A Complex History Of Conflict

Austria-Hungary and Serbia were at odds with each other for a multitude of reasons, including economic, political, and military factors. Austria-Hungary, a major European power, was a dynastic empire comprised of many different races, and was nicknamed the 'polyglot empire'. It was terrified of the 'panslavism', the nationalism by which the Slav races of the Balkans aspired to set up their own nation-states. Austria-Hungary regarded Serbia as the leading, and worst, example of this.

In 1876, Serbia went to war with Turkey and conquered Bosnia, an area of the Balkans where many Serbs lived. However, at the Congress of Berlin, two years later, Austria-Hungary persuaded the great powers to give back Bosnia to Turkey, under Austria's 'protection'. In 1906, Austria-Hungary banned all imports of Serbian pork, and Serbia responded by selling its pork to France. In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, and the Serbs were furious. In 1912-13, Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria (calling themselves the Balkan League) attacked Turkey and all but drove the Turks out of Europe. The next year, Bulgaria attacked Serbia, but was defeated, leaving Serbia as the leading Slavic power in the Balkans.

In 1913, the Austrians told the Italian government that they were going to invade Serbia. The Austrian Chief of Staff General Hotzendorf had asked for a 'surprise' war to destroy Serbia more than 25 times in the eight years after 1906. In 1914, the assassination of Franz Ferdinand by Bosnians gave the Austrian government the excuse to attack Serbia. The terms of the Ultimatum demanded that the Serb government stop all anti-Austrian activities, help the Austrian government suppress all anti-Austrian terrorist groups, and allow Austrian police to help in an investigation of Serbia's links to Franz Ferdinand's assassination, among other things. The Ultimatum was extreme on purpose—the Austrians hoped that the Serbs would reject it, giving them the excuse to invade. On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, effectively beginning the First World War.

Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against Serbia on 28 July 1914

On 28 July 1914, exactly one month after Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife were assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, effectively beginning the First World War.

The declaration of war came after a series of diplomatic and military escalations between the two nations. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, on 28 June 1914, was the catalyst for the conflict. The assassin, Gavrilo Princip, was a Bosnian Serb nationalist and member of a Serbian-backed paramilitary organisation. This event followed several years of tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, which had escalated after Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908.

Austria-Hungary sought to inflict a military blow on Serbia, with the support of its powerful ally, Germany. On 23 July 1914, Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with an ultimatum, demanding that all anti-Austrian propaganda within Serbia be suppressed, and that Austria-Hungary be allowed to conduct its own investigation into the archduke's killing. Serbia effectively accepted all of Austria's demands except for one, but Austria-Hungary broke diplomatic relations on 25 July and continued with military preparedness measures.

On 28 July 1914, after pressure from Germany for quick action, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. This was despite attempts at mediation by the British Foreign Office and some opposition from Kaiser Wilhelm II, who still saw the possibility of a peaceful diplomatic resolution to the conflict. The declaration of war was followed by a brief, ineffectual bombardment of Belgrade by Austrian artillery divisions that night.

Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to Serbia

On 23 July 1914, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding that they:

• Condemn the "dangerous propaganda" against Austria-Hungary, which aimed to detach territories belonging to the Monarchy.
• Suppress all anti-Austrian propaganda and eliminate terrorist organisations within its borders, including the Black Hand, which was believed to have aided the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
• Allow Austro-Hungarian officials to participate in the investigation and suppression of organisations hostile to Austria-Hungary within Serbia.
• Arrest Major Vojislav Tankosić and civil servant Milan Ciganović, who were named as participants in the assassination plot.
• Cease the cooperation of Serbian authorities in the arms trade across the frontier.
• Provide explanations for the expressions of hostility towards Austria-Hungary by Serbian officials.

The ultimatum was formulated in such a way as to make Serbian acceptance unlikely, particularly in the sixth point, which infringed upon Serbian state sovereignty. Serbia was given 48 hours to respond, and the initial consequence of non-acceptance was the breaking of diplomatic relations, with war as the next likely step.

Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia

The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary was a significant event that had far-reaching consequences for the region and ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I. Here is a detailed account of the annexation, focusing on the role of Austria-Hungary:

Background to the Annexation:

• The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were strategically important regions in the Balkan Peninsula, coveted by several European powers due to their geographic location and ethnic composition.
• Since the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria-Hungary had been granted the right to occupy and administer Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were still nominally under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
• This arrangement was intended to preserve the delicate balance of power in Europe, but it also fuelled nationalist ambitions among the largely Slavic population of the provinces and their neighbours, including Serbia.

Events Leading to the Annexation:

• In 1908, a rebellion by the "Young Turks" in the Ottoman Empire provided an opportunity for Austria-Hungary to assert its dominance in the Balkans. Baron Aloys von Aerenthal, the foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, saw this as a chance to solidify his country's position in the region.
• Aerenthal began formulating plans for the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, knowing that Russia, Austria-Hungary's rival for influence in the Balkans, was weakened by its recent defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and internal revolutions.
• In July 1908, Aerenthal met with the Russian foreign minister, Aleksandr Izvolsky, at Buchlau Castle in Moravia. They discussed a potential deal where Russia would gain access to the Turkish Straits, and in return, Austria-Hungary would receive approval for the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Annexation and its Aftermath:

• On October 5, 1908, Austria-Hungary announced its unilateral decision to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire.
• This announcement sparked outrage and protests from Serbia, Montenegro, and other Balkan neighbours, as well as the Great Powers of Europe. Serbia, in particular, felt threatened by the loss of territories it had hoped to annex to further its pan-Slavic ambitions.
• The annexation upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans and permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours, especially Serbia, Italy, and Russia.
• The crisis was eventually resolved through diplomatic negotiations, with the Treaty of Berlin being amended in April 1909 to reflect the annexation. However, the damage to Austro-Serbian relations was long-lasting and contributed to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
• The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary was a pivotal moment that heightened tensions in the Balkans, fuelled nationalist sentiments, and set the stage for the conflicts that would soon engulf Europe.

Austria-Hungary's ban on Serbian pork imports

The ban on Serbian pork imports was part of a trade war between Austria-Hungary and the Kingdom of Serbia, known as the Pig War, which took place between 1906 and 1908.

In the early 20th century, Serbia was economically dependent on the Habsburgs, with most of its pork exports being bought by Austria-Hungary. However, Serbia began to seek economic and political independence from the Habsburgs, and started building links with other countries, including Bulgaria, Germany and France. In response, the Hungarian government decided to punish the Serbs with economic sanctions.

In April 1906, Austria-Hungary closed its borders to Serbian pork. Serbia refused to back down and instead gained French investment to build new packing plants for international trade, and pressured the Austrian-administered provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina for a trade outlet on the Adriatic Sea. By March 1908, Austria-Hungary conceded the conflict.

Austria-Hungary's occupation of Serbia

The First Invasion

The first invasion of Serbia, which the Austro-Hungarian leadership dubbed a "punitive expedition", began on 12 August 1914, when the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army crossed the Drina River. During this invasion, Austro-Hungarian forces occupied parts of Serbia for thirteen days, committing numerous war crimes against the civilian population. Mass killings took place in numerous towns in northern Serbia, with residents being shot, beaten to death, hanged, stabbed, mutilated, or burned alive. The Austro-Hungarian Army was allowed to impose martial law, take hostages, burn villages, and respond to uprisings with public hangings and summary executions.

The Second and Third Invasions

On 8 September 1914, the Austro-Hungarians launched a second invasion, this time engaging all their forces. Despite outnumbering the Serbs two to one, they faced fierce resistance and were pushed back. Convinced that Serbia was near defeat, Potiorek regrouped and launched a third offensive on 5 November 1914, exploiting the Austro-Hungarians' superiority in artillery. By mid-December, however, the Royal Serbian Army had launched a successful counterattack, forcing the Austro-Hungarians to retreat.

The Fourth Invasion and Occupation

On 5 October 1915, Austria-Hungary and Germany launched a joint invasion of Serbia, marking the fourth attempt to conquer the country. This time, they enjoyed massive superiority in numbers and equipment, and within six weeks, they had succeeded in conquering Serbia. Serbia was then divided into two separate occupation zones, an Austro-Hungarian zone in the north and a Bulgarian zone in the east, both governed under a military administration. The Austro-Hungarian occupation zone was ruled by the Military General Governorate of Serbia (MGG/S), with Belgrade as its administrative centre. The goal of the new administration was to denationalise the Serb population and exploit the country's economic resources.

Life Under Occupation

The occupational authorities implemented a range of measures to depoliticise and denationalise the Serbian population, including banning political organisations and public assembly, forbidding the use of the Cyrillic script, and bringing schools under their control. They also carried out numerous summary executions, deportations, and the seizure of hostages. Between 150,000 and 200,000 men, women, and children were deported to purpose-built internment and concentration camps in Austria-Hungary, where many perished. The occupational authorities also exploited Serbia's economic resources, confiscating and requisitioning materials and utilising labour.

Liberation

In September 1918, Allied forces broke through the Salonica front, leading to the surrender of Bulgaria and the quick liberation of Serbia. By 1 November 1918, all of pre-war Serbia had been liberated, bringing the three-year Central Powers occupation to an end.

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