Exploring Tyrol: Austria-Italy Border And Cultural Identity

Tyrol is a historical region in the Alps of Northern Italy and Western Austria. The area was historically the core of the County of Tyrol, part of the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian Empire, and Austria-Hungary from its formation in the 12th century until 1919. In 1919, following World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, it was divided into two modern administrative parts: the State of Tyrol, formed through the merger of North and East Tyrol as part of Austria, and the Region of Trentino-Alto Adige, which became part of the Italian Republic in 1946.

The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye

The treaty led to significant territorial losses for Cisleithanian Austria, amounting to over 60% of the pre-war Austrian Empire's territory. The southern half of the former Tyrolean crown land up to the Brenner Pass, including South Tyrol and Trentino, was ceded to Italy. This region had been occupied by Italian forces since 1918 and became known as the Region of Trentino-Alto Adige. The treaty also included provisions for war reparations and the liquidation of the Austro-Hungarian Bank.

The military clauses of the treaty limited Austria's army to 30,000 volunteers and required the disbandment of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, with its ships distributed among the Allies. Additionally, the manufacture of arms and munitions was restricted to one state-owned factory, and there was a ban on imports and exports. The treaty also addressed issues related to prisoners of war, war graves, and the establishment of war crimes tribunals.

The economic clauses of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye tackled commercial relations, duties, and tariffs, with a focus on ensuring favourable trading rights for the Allied and Associated Powers. The treaty also included financial clauses, requiring Austria to bear the cost of the armies of occupation and imposing a ban on the sale of gold.

The Gruber-De Gasperi Agreement

The treaty also recognised German as an official language in equivalence with Italian in the local area. Furthermore, people were granted the right to reassume their original German personal and family names, which many had abandoned during the Fascist regime's oppressive assimilation programme. The agreement was implemented by Italy, which restored the official use of German and its teaching in schools, reintroduced German toponyms, and allowed the return of those who had opted for Nazi Germany, even if they had been compromised by the regime.

The Fascist Italianisation of South Tyrol

South Tyrol, an autonomous Italian province, was inhabited by almost 90% German speakers in 1919, when it was annexed from Austria. Under Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime, the region underwent a process of Italianisation, which caused deep rifts in South Tyrolean society.

In 1923, Italian place names were made official by decree, and the German name "Tyrol" was banned, along with its derivatives. German newspapers, publishing houses, clubs and associations were forced to rename, and the decree was strictly enforced by Italian carabinieri on the ground. The basis for these actions was a manifesto published by Ettore Tolomei, called the 'Provvedimenti per l'Alto Adige' ('Measures for the Alto Adige'), which became the blueprint for the Italianisation campaign. The manifesto included 32 measures, such as the introduction of Italian as the official language, the dissolution of German associations, the prevention of German immigration, and preferential treatment for Italian land acquisition and immigration.

The fascist authorities also published their own German-language newspaper, the Alpenzeitung, while other German-language papers were censored and forced to adopt a pro-regime editorial policy. The Italianisation programme was particularly forceful in schools, aiming at the destruction of the German school system. By 1928, Italian had become the only language of instruction in 760 South Tyrolean classes, affecting over 30,000 pupils. German teachers were dismissed or transferred to the south, and degrees from Austrian or German universities were only considered valid with an additional year at an Italian university.

The German-speaking population responded by establishing 'Katakombenschulen' ('catacomb schools'), clandestine home schools outside the Italianised standard educational system. Textbooks were smuggled across the border, and secret seminars for teachers were organised, often under the protection of the Catholic Church. Fascist countermeasures included searches, confiscations, imprisonments and deportations.

The fascist monuments that remain standing in South Tyrol today are a source of controversy. Some see them as a glorification of the past and a cause of political and ethnic conflict, while others argue that they should be preserved as traces of history. A third approach, advocated by the South Tyrolean People's Party, is to "neutralise" the monuments by transforming them into museums, for instance, thus conferring a symbolic meaning and using them as opportunities to learn from and reflect on the past.

The South Tyrolean Question

Tyrol is a historical region in the Alps of Northern Italy and Western Austria. In 1919, following World War I, it was divided into two modern administrative parts: the State of Tyrol, which is part of Austria, and the Region of Trentino-Alto Adige, which is part of Italy.

South Tyrol, also known as Südtirol, is an autonomous province in northern Italy. It is the northernmost province in Italy and the second-largest, with an area of 7,400 square kilometres and a population of about 534,000 inhabitants as of 2021. The capital and largest city of South Tyrol is Bolzano.

South Tyrol is characterised by its multilingualism, with 57.6% of the population using German as their first language, 22.6% speaking Italian, 3.7% speaking Ladin, and 16.1% speaking another native language in addition to Italian and German. The province is granted a high level of self-government, with exclusive legislative and executive powers and a fiscal regime that allows it to retain 90% of its revenue.

The issue was resolved in 1971 with a new Austro-Italian treaty, which granted South Tyrol greater autonomy within Italy and stipulated that disputes would be submitted to the International Court of Justice. The autonomous status granted in 1972 has allowed South Tyrol to retain its cultural identity and geographical autonomy, with a high level of self-government.

The Austro-Italian Treaty of 1971

Tyrol is a region in modern-day Italy and Austria. The Austro-Italian Treaty of 1971 was signed to resolve the issue of the Italian-speaking South Tyrol, which had been a point of contention between the two countries since the end of World War I.

Background

Following World War I, the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye was signed in 1919, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian Empire and recognising the independence of several new states, including Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). The treaty also ceded the southern half of the former Tyrolean crown land, including South Tyrol and Trentino, to Italy. This was a significant gain for Italy, which had entered the war in 1915 with the promise of undisputed control over the Tyrol region, where many Italians lived under Austro-Hungarian rule.

However, the Treaty of London, which committed Italy to join the war on the side of the Allies, also included promises of far more territory for Italy, including parts of Dalmatia, numerous islands along the Adriatic coast, and territory from the Ottoman Empire. As a result, the Italian government considered the Treaty of London to be a binding agreement that should dictate the peace terms.

Negotiations and Conflict

Negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 were tense and complicated, with the Italian delegation, led by Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino, firmly asserting their demands. However, the British and French deeply regretted the promises made to Italy, feeling that the country had contributed little to the Allied victory. Resistance to Italian claims was led by American President Woodrow Wilson, who refused to honour the secret Treaty of London and advocated for the self-determination of the Yugoslavs. Wilson argued that Italy should be satisfied with receiving only the territory of Trentino and the Tyrol, where the majority of the population was Italian.

The negotiations were further complicated by the formation of a Yugoslav state in December 1918, which Britain and France supported. This new state conflicted with Italy's former claims on South Slav territory and Dalmatia, and the Italian government, driven by public opinion, was unwilling to relinquish these claims. As a compromise, Britain and France agreed to honour the Treaty of London, although they did so reluctantly.

The Treaty of 1971

The treaty also addressed other issues, such as cross-border cooperation, transportation, and trade. It provided a framework for the two countries to work together to promote economic development and cultural exchange in the region. Additionally, it established protocols for the protection and preservation of the unique cultural and linguistic heritage of South Tyrol, ensuring that the rights and traditions of both Italian and German-speaking communities were respected and safeguarded.

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