Serbia Vs. Austria-Hungary: A Historical Comparison

Serbia and Austria-Hungary have had a long and tumultuous relationship, with Serbia being a target for invaders due to its proximity to both Europe and Asia. Serbia was a principality of the Ottoman Empire until it gained independence in the 1800s, while Austria-Hungary was a major European power. In the lead-up to World War I, Serbia became economically dependent on Austria-Hungary, which caused discontent among Serbian intellectuals who were wary of Austrian expansionism. This, coupled with rising nationalism in Serbia, led to increasing tensions between the two nations. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Bosnian Serb in 1914 served as a catalyst for Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia, marking the beginning of World War I. Despite Austria-Hungary's superior military power, Serbia successfully repelled their invasion attempts twice in 1914, only succumbing when Bulgaria and Germany joined forces with Austria-Hungary. Serbia's resilience and ability to defend its interests against a larger power highlight its strength and determination during this tumultuous period.

Serbia's economic dependence on Austria-Hungary

The Austro-Hungarian Army was allowed to impose martial law, practice hostage-taking, burn villages in punitive raids, and respond to uprisings with public hangings and summary executions. They also deported between 150,000 and 200,000 men, women, and children to purpose-built internment and concentration camps in Austria-Hungary.

The economic exploitation of Serbia during the occupation was characterised by various measures, including confiscations, requisitions, and the utilisation of economic resources and labour. Extensive requisitions of materials such as wool, copper, brass, nickel, and zinc, as well as food and leather, were conducted by Special Units, known as Suchdetaschement. Seized materials were sent to administrative bodies in Belgrade and then transported to Austria-Hungary.

Tensions between the Austrian and German authorities increased after the German military employed a ruthless system of requisition, resulting in famine and the pauperisation of the population. However, the Germans took control of all railways, mines, forestry, and agricultural resources in Serbia.

Serbian nationalism

Origins and History

Karadžić, considered the father of Serbian nationalism, created a linguistic definition of Serbs that included all speakers of the Štokavian dialect, regardless of religious affiliation or geographical origin. This definition implied that large areas of continental Croatia, Dalmatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina were Serbian, as they were inhabited by Štokavian speakers. Karadžić's theory has been described as a “dangerous political and ideological idea in scientific shape” by German historian Michael Weithmann, while Czech historian Jan Rychlik considers Karadžić a “propagator of greater Serbian ideology”.

Garašanin, another early proponent of Serbian nationalism, advocated for a Greater Serbia – a Serbian state with borders extended to include all Serbs in the Balkan region. In 1844, he formulated a secret political draft, Načertanije, influenced by a similar document written by Polish Prince Adam Czartoryski. This plan claimed lands inhabited by Bulgarians, Macedonians, Albanians, Montenegrins, Bosnians, Hungarians, and Croats as part of Greater Serbia, with the primary concern of strengthening Serbia's position by inculcating Serbian and pro-Serbian national ideology in the surrounding peoples.

In 1914, the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Bosnian Serb revolutionary Gavrilo Princip resulted in Austria-Hungary accusing Serbia of involvement and declaring war, triggering World War I. Despite heavy casualties, Serbia benefited from the Allies' victory, and subsequently joined with territories claimed by Yugoslav nationalists to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, informally known as Yugoslavia, in 1918. Serbian nationalists supported a centralised Yugoslav state, while Croatian and Slovenian nationalists advocated for decentralisation, creating unstable governance during the interwar period.

During World War II, Serbian nationalism rose in response to the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, with Chetnik forces of Draža Mihailović resisting both the Axis powers and the communist Yugoslav Partisans. An extreme anti-Muslim variant of Serbian nationalism was practised by the Chetniks, who massacred Bosnian Muslims during the war.

Following the war and the seizure of power by Josip Broz Tito's communist Partisans, Serbian nationalism developed in the 1960s, challenging state-sponsored policies of Yugoslavism and "Brotherhood and Unity". Tito's expulsion of the nationalist-leaning Serbian communist official Aleksandar Ranković in the 1960s was perceived as an attack on Serbian nationalism, and Serbian nationalist intellectuals increasingly viewed Yugoslavia as detrimental to the Serb nation.

Milošević's rise and his rigid control of the media, along with his anti-bureaucratic revolution that overthrew provincial governments, gave him a dominant position in Yugoslavia's collective presidency. His calls for a centralised system of government were opposed by Croatia and Slovenia, who demanded a confederal state. Milošević's insistence on centralisation and his insinuations that a decentralised Yugoslavia would lead to the pursuit of a Greater Serbia alienated other ethnic groups and contributed to the breakup of Yugoslavia and the violent ethnic conflicts that ensued.

Serbian military victories in the Balkan Wars

Serbia was involved in two Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913, which were a series of conflicts that took place in the Balkan states. Here is a detailed account of Serbia's military victories during these wars:

First Balkan War (1912-1913)

Serbia was one of the major parties in the First Balkan War, which began on October 8, 1912, and ended eight months later with the signing of the Treaty of London on May 30, 1913. Serbia fought alongside Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria against the Ottoman Empire and achieved significant territorial gains.

Serbian-Montenegrin Theater of Operations

In the Serbian-Montenegrin theater of operations, the Serbian forces were divided into four independent armies and groups: the Javor Brigade, the Ibar Army, the Third Army, the First Army, and the Second Army. The Ibar Army and the Javor Brigade played a supporting role, while the other three armies were tasked with encircling and destroying the Ottoman Vardar Army in Vardar Macedonia, which was Serbia's primary objective in the war.

The Serbian Army, under General (later Marshal) Putnik, achieved three decisive victories in Vardar Macedonia, effectively destroying the Ottoman forces in the region and conquering northern Macedonia. They also sent two divisions to help the Bulgarians at the siege of Edirne.

Battle of Adrianople

The failure of the Ottoman forces in the Şarköy-Bulair operation and the deployment of the 2nd Serbian Army with its heavy siege artillery sealed the fate of Adrianople. The final assault on the city began on March 11, 1913, after a two-week bombardment that destroyed many fortified structures. Under the command of General Nikola Ivanov, the combined Bulgarian and Serbian forces conquered the city, with the Bulgarians suffering 8,093 casualties and the Serbs 1,462. The Ottoman casualties for the entire Adrianople campaign reached 23,000 killed, while an additional 28,500 were captured.

Serbian-Bulgarian Friction

The victory at Adrianople had major implications for Serbian-Bulgarian relations and planted the seeds of their confrontation a few months later. The Serbs felt that their contributions to the battle were not adequately recognized by the Bulgarian censor, which cut references to Serbian participation in telegrams sent by foreign correspondents. This led to a series of disputes between Serbia and Bulgaria over the interpretation of their mutual treaty and the division of conquered territories, ultimately leading to a future war between the two countries.

Second Balkan War (1913)

The Second Balkan War began on June 16, 1913, when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its loss of Macedonia, attacked its former allies from the First Balkan War. Serbia, Greece, Romania, Montenegro, and the Ottomans united against Bulgaria in this conflict.

Battle of Bregalnica

On the night of June 30, 1913, Bulgarian forces launched a surprise attack on the Serbian army at the Bregalnica River without a formal declaration of war. The Serbian army resisted the sudden night attack, and the Bulgarian offensive was halted. Montenegrin forces, which were only a few kilometers away, also rushed to the battle.

Battle of Monastir

The last major battle of the Second Balkan War was the Battle of Monastir, where the remains of the Ottoman Vardar Army were forced to retreat to central Albania. After this battle, Prime Minister Pasic of Serbia declined to join the race for Thessaloniki and instead turned his army west toward Albania, anticipating a future confrontation between Greece and Bulgaria over the city.

Aftermath

The Balkan Wars ended with the Treaty of Bucharest, which partitioned Macedonia, established the independent state of Albania, and made changes to the Balkan borders. Serbia gained significant territories, including northeast Macedonia (present-day North Macedonia), parts of the Sanjak of Novi-Bazar, and eastern half of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. These territorial gains nearly doubled Serbia's territory and contributed to rising tensions with Austria-Hungary, which saw Serbia's rising status and territorial ambitions as a threat to its own interests in the region.

Serbian royalty

Serbia's royalty dates back to the Early Middle Ages, with the first royal dynasty of the Serb people being the Vlastimirović dynasty. The history of this dynasty begins with the eponymous founder Vlastimir, whose era was marked by the Christianization of Serbs, numerous wars, and a power struggle between the First Bulgarian Empire and the Byzantine Empire. Over the centuries, Serbia has been ruled by various royal families, including the Vojislavljević dynasty, the Nemanjić dynasty, the Obrenović dynasty, and the Karađorđević dynasty.

• Stefan Nemanja (Nemanja I) was the founder of the Nemanjić dynasty and is considered one of the most important figures in Serbian history. He united several Serbian territories, including Duklja, Hum, and Travunia, and is known for his contributions to the development of Serbian law and the Serbian Orthodox Church.
• Stefan Uroš IV Dušan, often referred to as Dušan the Mighty, was a skilled military leader who doubled the size of the Serbian realm and enacted a constitution known as Dušan's Code. He was crowned Emperor in 1346 and is remembered for his contributions to Serbian culture and the flourishing of the Serbian Empire during his reign.
• Alexander Karađorđević, also known as Alexander II Karadjordjevic, is the current head of the House of Karađorđević, the former royal house of Yugoslavia and its predecessor, the Kingdom of Serbia. Born in 1945, he is the only child of King Peter II and Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark. Alexander is a proponent of re-establishing a constitutional monarchy in Serbia and is actively working towards this goal.

These are just a few examples of the rich history of Serbian royalty, which has played a significant role in shaping the country's history and culture over the centuries.

Serbian nationalist groups

Serbian nationalism asserts that Serbs are a nation and promotes the cultural and political unity of Serbs. It is an ethnic nationalism that arose in the context of the general rise of nationalism in the Balkans under Ottoman rule. Serbian nationalism was an important factor during the Balkan Wars, which contributed to the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and during and after World War I, which led to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Serbian nationalism has its roots in the 19th century, with the 1804 uprisings against Ottoman rule eventually leading to the creation of an independent Serbian state in 1878. Serbian nationalists themselves cite the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 as the origin of the movement. The Battle of Kosovo, which took place on the Serbian national and religious holiday of Vidovdan, holds important symbolic meaning for Serbian nationalists.

The Serbian linguist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić is considered by some authors to be the father of Serbian nationalism. Karadžić created a linguistic definition of Serbs that included all speakers of the Štokavian dialect, regardless of their religious affiliation or geographical origin. However, he acknowledged the right of some Štokavian-speaking peoples to call themselves names other than Serbs.

After Serbia gained independence in 1878, both South Slavs and the Serbian government considered their peoples in Habsburg-ruled Austria-Hungary to be under occupation. This led to increasing antagonism between Serbia and Austria-Hungary from the late 19th century to the early 20th century. In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, which further increased regional tensions as Serbia also wanted the territory for itself.

In 1914, Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by Bosnian Serb revolutionary Gavrilo Princip. Austria-Hungary accused Serbia of involvement and subsequently declared war, resulting in World War I. Serbian nationalism played a significant role in the conflict, with Serbian nationalists supporting a centralized Yugoslav state that guaranteed the unity of Serbs. They opposed decentralization and demanded that all Serbs in all the Yugoslav republics had the right to be united in a common state. This stance led to violent ethnic conflict between nationalist Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, and others during World War II, resulting in a highly violent sectarian variant of Serbian nationalism in the Chetnik movement.

Serbian nationalism experienced a resurgence in the 1980s, condemning post-World War II Yugoslavism and the decentralization of Yugoslavia. As Yugoslavia collapsed in the 1990s, Serbian nationalists, including Slobodan Milošević, urged Serbians and Montenegrins to "take to the streets" and utilized the slogan "Strong Serbia, Strong Yugoslavia". They supported a tricameral legislature that would give Serbs a majority and proposed a law to restore land titles held by Serbs in the interwar period, allowing large numbers of Serbs to move to Kosovo and Macedonia. Milošević also secretly adopted the RAM or "frame" plan, which involved the partition of Croatia and Bosnia to give large amounts of territory to the local Serbs, effectively creating a Greater Serbia.

Frequently asked questions