Bolivia: Country Or Concept?

Bolivia, officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country in west-central South America. It is the fifth-largest country in South America and the 27th largest in the world, with a population of around 12 million. Bolivia is a multiethnic country with a large proportion of indigenous people, and is named after Simón Bolívar, a 19th-century leader in the South American wars for independence. The country has a rich history, having once been part of the Inca Empire and the great Incan Empire before Spanish colonisation in the 16th century. Bolivia has a diverse landscape, from the Andes Mountains to the Amazon rainforest, and is known for its considerable natural resources, including large mineral deposits, hydrocarbons, agriculture and forestry.

Geography and climate

Bolivia is a landlocked country in west-central South America. It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay to the southeast, Argentina to the south, Chile to the southwest, and Peru to the west. Bolivia is the fifth-largest country in South America and the 27th largest in the world. It is also the largest landlocked country in the Southern Hemisphere.

The geography of Bolivia is varied, with several distinct physiographic regions. The Andean region in the southwest of the country is located above 3,000m (9,800 ft) altitude and is dominated by two Andean mountain chains: the Cordillera Occidental to the west, which contains numerous active volcanoes, and the Cordillera Central to the east. The Cordillera Real is a particularly spectacular section of the Cordillera Oriental, with a series of snow-capped peaks exceeding 20,000 ft (6,100m) in elevation.

Between these two ranges lies the Altiplano, a high plateau that extends from southern Peru through Bolivia to northern Argentina. The Altiplano is relatively flat, lying at elevations between 12,000 and 12,500 ft (3,650 and 3,800m). The Altiplano includes several large lakes, including Lake Titicaca, the highest navigable lake in the world, and Lake Poopó. The climate in the Altiplano varies from cool and humid in the north to semi-arid in the south, with average temperatures ranging from 15 to 27°C (60 to 80°F).

To the east of the Andean region is the Sub-Andean region, an intermediate area between the high plateau and the eastern lowlands. This region has a temperate climate and is known for its farming activities.

The Llanos region in the northeast of Bolivia is a flat area of lowlands and small plateaus, covered by extensive rainforests. This region is below 400m (1,300 ft) above sea level and has a humid tropical climate with an average temperature of 30°C (86°F).

Bolivia's climate and geography vary significantly across these regions, with a wide range of biomes, ecological regions, and ecosystems. The country experiences a variety of weather patterns, from tropical climates in the eastern lowlands to polar climates in the western Andes. The summers are generally warm and humid in the east, while the winters are cold and snowy in the west. The autumn is typically dry in the non-tropical regions.

History

Bolivia, officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the fifth-largest country in South America and the largest landlocked country in the Southern Hemisphere. Bolivia has a rich history spanning thousands of years.

Pre-Colonial History

The Tiwanaku people, who had reached an advanced level of civilization, were conquered by the rapidly expanding Inca Empire in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The Inca themselves were then conquered by the Spanish led by Francisco Pizarro in the early sixteenth century.

Colonial History

During the Spanish colonial period, the region that is now Bolivia fell under the Viceroyalty of Peru and was known as Upper Peru. It was transferred to the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata in 1776. Upper Peru joined the Spanish American wars of independence in the early nineteenth century, and the Bolivian Republic was established in 1825, named after Simon Bolivar.

Post-Colonial History

In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Bolivia lost control of several peripheral territories to neighbouring countries, including Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay. Bolivia experienced a succession of military and civilian governments until Hugo Banzer led a CIA-supported coup d'état in 1971, establishing a military dictatorship. Banzer was ousted in 1978 and later returned as the democratically elected President of Bolivia from 1997 to 2001.

In the twenty-first century, Bolivian politics was dominated by Evo Morales until he resigned in 2019 amid a political crisis. Morales carried out a radical programme aimed at addressing extreme social divisions and inequalities. He was the first president to come from Bolivia's indigenous majority.

Politics

Bolivia is a landlocked country in west-central South America. It is a unitary multiparty republic with a presidential representative democratic system. The president is the head of state, head of government, and head of a diverse multi-party system. The executive power is exercised by the government, while legislative power is vested in the government and the two chambers of parliament. The judiciary and the electoral branch are independent of the executive and the legislature.

Bolivia's current constitution was adopted via referendum in 2009, providing for a unitary secular state. The president is directly elected to a five-year term by popular vote. A candidate needs either an absolute majority or 40% of the vote with a 10% lead to win the election. If no candidate receives an absolute majority of the popular vote, a run-off is held between the two candidates with the most votes.

The bicameral Plurinational Legislative Assembly consists of the Chamber of Senators (36 seats) and the Chamber of Deputies (130 seats).

Bolivia has a rich political history, with more than 20 active political parties representing a wide range of ideologies. The military has played a significant role in the country's politics, and coups have been staged by various parties. The country's politics have been influenced by its diverse demographics, including its large indigenous population.

In recent years, Bolivian politics has been marked by protests, allegations of corruption, and a power struggle between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the government.

Economy

Bolivia is a landlocked country in west-central South America. It is the fifth-largest country in South America and the 27th largest in the world. Bolivia is classified by the World Bank as a lower-middle-income country and has the second-lowest GDP in South America. Bolivia's economy is largely driven by its natural resources, with mining being a major sector. Bolivia has the second-largest natural gas reserves in South America, and the government has pursued a policy of nationalization of natural resources. The mining industry, particularly the extraction of natural gas and zinc, currently dominates Bolivia's export economy. Bolivia is also the world's third-largest cultivator of coca, of which cocaine is produced.

Bolivia's economy has historically been focused on a single commodity, with silver and tin being important in the past. Bolivia's economy grew rapidly between 1960 and 1977, but a debt crisis began in 1977 and lasted until 1986, causing Bolivia to lose almost all the gains in GDP per capita it had achieved since 1960. After 1986, the Bolivian economy began to grow again, but it experienced a financial crisis between 1998 and 2002.

Bolivia's economy is vulnerable to fluctuations in commodity prices, and it has faced challenges in modernizing its agricultural sector due to political instability and difficult topography. Additionally, low population growth and low life expectancy have kept the labor supply in flux and prevented industries from flourishing. Bolivia's services industry remains underdeveloped due to weak purchasing power, and the manufacturing sector has been hindered by inadequate credit options and competition from the black market.

Bolivia has implemented macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform programs aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating scarcity. The government has also pursued market-liberal policies, particularly in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, to encourage private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment, and foreign ownership of companies faces virtually no restrictions in Bolivia.

In recent years, Bolivia has faced a currency crisis due to a fixed exchange rate with no international reserves to support it. The country has also experienced fuel shortages and a large fiscal deficit. Structural reforms are needed to reshape the government's function and promote private sector development.

Culture

Bolivia is a country of diverse culture, with people of Spanish origin, descendants of colonizers, indigenous groups from the Andes, and mestizos (those of mixed Spanish and indigenous descent). The country has 36 official languages, including Spanish, Quechua, Aymara, and Guaraní.

The culture of Bolivia is heavily influenced by its indigenous communities, with Indian traditions persisting throughout the nation, particularly in rural and working-class areas. That being said, the middle and upper classes tend to embrace "modern" or Western cultural ideals in their choices of music, clothing, entertainment, and art.

The combination of Indian and European cultural influences has produced a thriving artistic community in Bolivia, with prominent painters, sculptors, classical and traditional musicians, and folk dancers. Numerous theaters and art galleries in major cities showcase traditional Bolivian art and music. The most prominent museums are the National Museum of Art and the National Museum of Archaeology, both in La Paz, and the Casa de Moneda National Museum in Potosí.

Bolivian cuisine consists mainly of meat, potatoes, corn pancakes, rice, eggs, and vegetables. Local specialties include pique a lo macho (grilled beef and sausage), lechón (suckling pig), and cuy (whole roasted guinea pig).

The most important folk festival in Bolivia is held in Oruro during the Carnival holidays, where many Indian musical and dance groups compete, providing a magnificent display of costumes and decorations. Another significant festival is the Great Power (Gran Poder) festival in La Paz during May, and the celebration of the Virgin of Urkupina in Cochabamba.

The country's religious landscape is predominantly Roman Catholic, with a scattering of other Protestant groups. Indigenous Bolivians have blended Catholicism with their traditional religious beliefs, often unifying the form of Pacha Mama (Mother Earth) with the Virgin Mary in their artwork.

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