Belarus: A Western Society In The Making?

Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, and Latvia. Belarus has a population of around 9 million, with over 80% of Belarusian ethnicity. The country has strong cultural ties to its neighbours, particularly Russia, with which it formed a supranational confederation in 1996. Belarus has also historically been influenced by the cultures of its other neighbours, including Lithuania, Poland, and Ukraine.

Belarus has a distinct ethnic identity and language, but its people have never previously enjoyed unity and political sovereignty, except during a brief period in 1918. Belarusian history is thus less an isolable national narrative than a study of regional forces, their interplay, and their effects on the Belarusian people. The territory that is now Belarus underwent partition and changed hands repeatedly; as a result, much of the history of Belarus is inseparable from that of its neighbours.

Since independence in 1991, Belarus has retained close ties to its most dominant neighbour, Russia. However, Belarus is not considered a part of Western society.

Belarus's relationship with the West during the Cold War

The Cold War Context

During the Cold War, Belarus was known as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR) and was a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, which placed it firmly within the Eastern Bloc. The BSSR had a communist government and was closely aligned with the Soviet Union's foreign policy, including its rivalry with the Western Bloc.

Tensions with the West

The Cold War era was marked by tensions between the East and the West, and Belarus, as part of the Soviet Union, was often caught in the middle. One significant source of tension was the presence of Soviet nuclear weapons and military bases in Belarus during the Cold War. This military buildup contributed to the perception of Belarus as a potential threat to Western interests.

Impact of World War II

The aftermath of World War II also influenced Belarus's relationship with the West. The country suffered devastating losses during the war, with a quarter of its population and much of its economic resources destroyed. This led to a period of reconstruction and alignment with the Soviet Union, which further distanced Belarus from Western countries.

Cultural and Social Influences

While Belarus was officially part of the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War, there were still some cultural and social influences from the West. For example, the country had a significant Jewish population before and during World War II, and Jewish culture continued to have an impact on Belarusian society. Additionally, there were Western European influences on Belarusian culture, such as the adoption of Magdeburg Law, which granted municipal self-rule to certain cities.

Border Disputes

Border disputes with Western countries also played a role in shaping Belarus's relationship with the West during the Cold War. The country's borders shifted multiple times in the decades before and after World War II, with territories being ceded to Poland or the Soviet Union. These disputes often led to tensions and conflicts with neighbouring countries, including Poland and Lithuania.

Limited Engagement with the West

During the Cold War, Belarus had limited direct engagement with Western countries due to its position within the Soviet Union. However, there were occasional interactions, such as Belarus's participation in the United Nations, where it had a seat in the General Assembly. Nonetheless, Belarus's foreign policy was largely aligned with the Soviet Union, and its primary focus was on maintaining strong relations with the Eastern Bloc rather than seeking closer ties with the West.

Belarus's relationship with the West post-Cold War

Belarus's relationship with the West has been strained since the country's independence in 1991. The country has never aspired to join the European Union and has been described as "Europe's last dictatorship". Belarus has continued several Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of large sections of the economy, and is the only European country that continues to use capital punishment.

The country has been a member of the United Nations since its founding and has joined the CIS, the CSTO, the EAEU, the OSCE, and the Non-Aligned Movement. It has maintained a bilateral relationship with the EU and participates in the Baku Initiative.

In the early 2000s, Belarus had several economic disputes with Russia, its primary economic partner. However, in recent years, Russian President Vladimir Putin has seized on the weaknesses of Belarus's longtime authoritarian leader, Alexander Lukashenko, to hasten the two countries' integration.

In 2020, Lukashenko attempted to maintain Belarus's independence by positioning the country as neutral ground for diplomacy between Russia, Ukraine, and Western European powers. However, he was eventually forced to drop his diplomatic posturing and embrace Russia amid an extraordinary uprising that threatened to unseat him. With domestic pressure and international opprobrium mounting, Lukashenko turned to Moscow for political, economic, and security assurances.

In 2021, Belarus allowed Russian forces to stage their assault on Kyiv from its territory, providing Russia with a significant strategic advantage in its war against Ukraine. Belarus has also become a base and training ground for the Wagner Group, a Russian paramilitary organization, and has reportedly hosted Russian tactical nuclear weapons. These developments have significantly raised tensions with neighbouring Poland and the Baltic states, all NATO members and strong supporters of Ukraine.

In September 2023, EU lawmakers called on the International Criminal Court to indict and arrest Lukashenko for war crimes he allegedly committed during the Ukraine war. The EU has also severed important trade corridors through the Baltics and banned flights into Belarus, isolating the landlocked country's market and increasing its dependence on Russia.

Belarus's relationship with the West during the Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution and its Aftermath:

In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution in 1917, the Belarusian People's Republic (BPR) declared independence from Russia in March 1918 under German occupation. However, the BPR's existence was short-lived due to the ongoing presence of German and Bolshevik Red Army forces in the region. The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 further contributed to the instability, with the term "White Russia" causing confusion as it was also the name of the military force opposing the Bolsheviks.

The Polish-Soviet War and Territorial Changes:

The Polish-Soviet War (1918-1921) significantly impacted Belarus's borders. This conflict ended with the Peace of Riga in 1921, resulting in Western Belarus being ruled by Poland and Eastern Belarus falling under Soviet influence as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). The war also led to a significant loss of territory for Belarus, with almost half of its land being ceded to Poland.

Western Belarus under Polish Rule:

During the interwar period, Western Belarus was part of the Second Polish Republic and experienced Polonization policies aimed at assimilating the Belarusian minority. This included pressure on Belarusian schooling, discrimination against the Belarusian language, and the imposition of Polish national identity on Roman Catholics in the region. Despite these challenges, Belarusian cultural and literary figures, such as Yanka Kupala and Yakub Kolas, played a crucial role in developing Belarusian national consciousness during this time.

Eastern Belarus under Soviet Rule:

Eastern Belarus, as the BSSR, became a founding member of the Soviet Union in 1922. This period was marked by collectivization, five-year economic plans, and political repression, leading to famine and hardship for the Belarusian people. The Soviet Union also attempted to distance the BSSR from Western influences through a process of Sovietization, which included placing Russians in key positions within the BSSR government.

World War II and its Aftermath:

During World War II, Belarus was devastated by military operations and occupation, losing about a quarter of its population and half of its economic resources. After the war, the borders of the BSSR were altered, with most of Western Belarus remaining part of the BSSR, except for the region around Białystok, which was returned to Poland. The BSSR played a significant role in the anti-Nazi resistance movement, and its diverse partisan groups formed a core part of Belarusian national identity in the following decades.

Post-World War II Developments:

In the post-war period, the BSSR continued to undergo political and economic transformations. It became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and experienced industrialization, with the Soviet Union's support, transforming it from an agrarian to an industrial economy. However, the BSSR also faced challenges, such as the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986, which contaminated a significant portion of Belarusian territory.

The Path to Independence:

In the late 1980s, political liberalization and a national revival movement led by the Belarusian Popular Front set the stage for Belarus's independence. On July 27, 1990, the parliament of the BSSR proclaimed the sovereignty of Belarus, and on August 25, 1991, Belarus gained independence during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The country adopted a new constitution in 1994, and Alexander Lukashenko was elected as the first president in the country's only free election after independence.

Belarus's relationship with the West during the Second World War

Prelude to World War II

In the lead-up to World War II, the territory of modern-day Belarus was divided between the Soviet Union, which controlled the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR), and the Second Polish Republic. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 established a non-aggression agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, dividing Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Romania between them. In September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland, annexing Western Belorussia and incorporating it into the BSSR. This expansion of Soviet influence altered the ethnic makeup of the region and set the stage for future conflict.

German Invasion and Occupation

On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany, along with its Axis allies, invaded the Soviet Union, including the Byelorussian SSR. The German military occupied Belarus until it was fully liberated in August 1944 through Operation Bagration. During the occupation, the western parts of Belarus became part of the Reichskommissariat Ostland, and the Nazis established the Belarusian Central Rada, a regional collaborationist government. The occupation resulted in devastating human and material losses for Belarus. Over two million people were killed, including 500,000 to 550,000 Jews as part of the Holocaust. Additionally, villages, settlements, and infrastructure were destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of people were deported for slave labour.

Partisan Resistance

During the German occupation, a robust partisan movement emerged in Belarus, consisting of Soviet, Jewish, Polish, and Belarusian partisans. Hiding in the woods and swamps, they disrupted German supply lines, attacked Axis soldiers, and sabotaged railways and supply depots. The Belarusian partisans played a crucial role in liberating the country, with their "railway war" tactics hampering the German supply of weapons, ammunition, and food. By the end of 1942, about one-third of Belarusian territory was under partisan control, and this increased to almost two-thirds by the following year.

Aftermath and Impact

The Second World War had a profound impact on Belarus, resulting in immense loss of life and destruction of infrastructure. Belarus lost about a quarter of its pre-war population, including a significant portion of its intellectual elite. Additionally, 209 towns and 9,200 villages were razed or destroyed, and the country's industry and economy suffered significant damage. The war also left a legacy of resistance and resilience, with the partisan movement becoming a core part of Belarusian national identity. The country's experience during the war shaped its political trajectory, with former partisans holding government positions well into the 1970s.

Belarus's relationship with the West during the formation of the Soviet Union

1917-1919:

After the Russian Revolution of 1917 and during the Russian Civil War, various states emerged, vying for legitimacy. This period saw the rise of the Byelorussian Democratic Republic under German occupation and the Bolshevik-controlled Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia. The Bolsheviks also established the Lithuanian-Belorussian Soviet Republic in 1919, which was short-lived.

1918-1921:

The Polish-Soviet War erupted, resulting in significant territorial changes. The Treaty of Riga in 1921 partitioned Belarus between the Polish-controlled West Belarus and the Soviet-controlled Byelorussian SSR. This war had a significant impact on the region, with Belarus losing almost half of its territory to Poland.

1922:

The Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Soviet Union in 1922, alongside Russia, Transcaucasia, and Ukraine. This marked a shift in Belarus's relationship with the West, as it became closely aligned with the Soviet Union.

1920s-1930s:

The Polish-controlled West Belarus underwent a process of Polonization, which included discrimination against the Belarusian language and culture. Meanwhile, the Byelorussian SSR experienced Soviet agricultural and economic policies, such as collectivization and five-year plans, which led to famine and political repression.

1939:

The Soviet Union invaded and occupied eastern Poland, including West Belarus, at the outbreak of World War II. This brought West Belarus under Soviet control and altered the region's dynamics with the West.

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