Belarus' Political Spectrum: Right-Of-Center?

Belarus is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe with a population of 9.1 million. It is bordered by Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania and Latvia. Belarus has a semi-presidential, republican constitution, with a bicameral parliament, but it has been described as Europe's last dictatorship due to its highly centralised, authoritarian government, led by President Alexander Lukashenko since 1994.

Lukashenko has been accused of rigging elections, repressing opponents and controlling the media. Human rights groups have reported that Lukashenko's government has committed numerous abuses, including unlawful killings, torture, cruel and degrading treatment, and arbitrary arrests and detentions.

Belarus has close ties with Russia, and the two countries signed a treaty in 1999 to create a politically integrated confederation. However, the precise nature of this partnership remains unclear.

Belarus's political history

Early History

During the medieval period, different states ruled over the territory of modern-day Belarus, including Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 16th century, the territory became part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, leading to the Polonization of its population.

Russian Rule

In the late 18th century, the Belarusian territories were acquired by the Russian Empire during the partitions of Poland, resulting in the suppression of Belarusian culture and the imposition of Orthodox Christianity.

Independence and Soviet Rule

Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Belarus declared independence as the Belarusian People's Republic in 1918, but this state was short-lived due to the ongoing conflict between Imperial German and Russian forces. After the Polish-Soviet War (1918-1921), Belarus lost significant territory to Poland and became a founding member of the Soviet Union in 1922 as the Byelorussian SSR.

During World War II, Belarus was heavily impacted, losing about a quarter of its population and suffering extensive destruction. After the war, the Byelorussian SSR experienced industrialization and became a founding member of the United Nations.

Post-Soviet Independence

In the late 1980s, political liberalization and a national revival movement led by the Belarusian Popular Front emerged. On July 27, 1990, Belarus declared its sovereignty, and on August 25, 1991, it gained independence from the Soviet Union. Stanislav Shushkevich became the first Belarusian leader, advocating for social democratic reforms and a departure from the Soviet past.

However, in 1994, Alexander Lukashenko was elected as the first president of Belarus and has remained in power ever since. Lukashenko's rule has been characterized as authoritarian, with restricted civil liberties, media freedom, and fair elections. The country has continued some Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of key industries, and is the only European nation that retains the death penalty.

Lukashenko's administration has been marked by strained relations with Western countries, including the European Union and the United States, due to concerns over human rights violations, election irregularities, and political oppression. Belarus has maintained close ties with Russia, signing a treaty for greater cooperation and forming the Union State in 2000.

The country's human rights record

Belarus has been criticised for its human rights record by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the US State Department. The country has been described as "Europe's last dictatorship", with President Alexander Lukashenko characterised as "Europe's last dictator".

The country's human rights violations include the persecution of non-governmental organisations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition politicians. During the 2020 Belarusian presidential election and protests, the number of political prisoners recognised by the Viasna Human Rights Centre rose dramatically to 1062 as of 16 February 2022. Several people died after the use of unlawful and abusive force (including firearms) by law enforcement officials during the 2020 protests.

The Belarusian government has also been accused of using torture and mistreatment of detainees, arbitrary arrests, detention, and imprisonment of citizens for political reasons, and restricting freedom of speech and the press. The authorities also restrict freedom of assembly under former Soviet law, which requires an application at least 15 days in advance of any event.

The Belarusian government has also been criticised for its treatment of political prisoners, including those from the youth wing of the Belarusian Popular Front. In a report dated 26 April 2005, Amnesty International criticised Belarus for its treatment of dissidents, including a woman imprisoned for publishing a satirical poem.

In 2023, the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) reported on systematic, widespread, and gross human rights violations committed in Belarus, concluding that some may amount to crimes against humanity. The same year, the Viasna Human Rights Centre was awarded the UN Human Rights Prize.

Belarus is the only country in Europe and Central Asia to carry out the death penalty. The country has also been criticised for its treatment of LGBT people, with LGBT rights in the country ranked among the lowest in Europe.

The Belarusian government has denied that it has human rights issues, stating that assessments of the country's human rights record are "quite far from reality".

The country's judicial system

The judicial system of Belarus is formed according to the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus, the Judicial System and the Status of Judges Code, and the Constitutional Justice Act. The system of courts is based on the territorial principle and specialisation.

The court system is represented by the Constitutional Court and universal jurisdiction courts. All court proceedings must follow the established system, and emergency courts are forbidden under any circumstances.

The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court of the Republic of Belarus is the highest judicial body, carrying out justice on civil, criminal cases, and administrative offences. It also supervises the judicial activity of the courts of general jurisdiction and realises other powers according to law. The Supreme Court is led by Chairman Valentin Sukalo.

Universal Jurisdiction Courts

Universal jurisdiction courts deal with civil, criminal, administrative, and economic cases, as well as cases involving military personnel. These include the economic courts for Minsk and the oblasts, which carry out justice in the field of economic relations, with the purpose of protecting the rights and interests of corporations and individuals.

The Constitutional Court

The Constitutional Court consists of 12 high-level legal experts, six of whom are appointed by the President of Belarus, and the other six are elected by the Council of the Republic. The Presiding Judge is directly appointed by the President with the approval of the Council of the Republic. The main purpose of the Constitutional Court is to ensure that new legislation and statutes are drawn up in accordance with the Constitution. The term of office for a Constitutional Court judge is 11 years.

Other Courts and Legal Bodies

The system of courts of general jurisdiction also includes regional (Minsk city) courts and district (city) courts. The economic courts are supported by the International Court of Arbitration at the Belarusian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, a non-state, non-commercial organisation that carries out its activities on a payable basis.

The Congress of Judges is the highest body of the judicial community, which exercises its powers in the composition of judges of the Constitutional Court, courts of general jurisdiction, and retired judges. The Congress of Judges is convoked at least once every four years.

The Belarusian Bar Association is made up of attorneys who have the right to protect and represent individuals and organisations in criminal, civil, and economic cases, as well as cases of administrative offences. All these attorneys must have a license to practice advocacy and can work in their own bureaus or in bars.

The main law-enforcement institute in Belarus is the State Prosecutor's Office, which executes control of legality and conformity to the law of judicial decisions on civil, criminal, and other cases.

International Law

Belarus is a member of the United Nations and has joined the CIS, the CSTO, the EAEU, the OSCE, and the Non-Aligned Movement. It has shown no aspirations to join the European Union but maintains a bilateral relationship with the bloc. Belarus is also a member of the Eurasian Economic Union, the Collective Security Treaty Organization, and the international Non-Aligned Movement since 1998.

Criticisms and Controversies

Belarus has been described as "Europe's last dictatorship", with President Alexander Lukashenko being labelled as "Europe's last dictator". The country has been criticised for its lack of freedom of the press and civil liberties, and its judicial system has been described as lacking independence and being subject to political interference.

The 2020 Belarusian presidential election, in which Lukashenko sought a sixth term in office, was disputed and led to mass protests. Neighbouring countries Poland and Lithuania, as well as the European Union, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States, do not recognise Lukashenko as the legitimate president of Belarus.

The country's political parties

Belarus has a de jure multi-party system, but it operates as a de facto one-party system within an authoritarian state. The country has 15 political parties, which can be divided into several groups.

Left-Wing Parties

The Communist Party of Belarus, the Belarusian Left Party “A Just World”, the Belarusian Agrarian Party, the Republican Party of Labour and Justice, and the Belarusian Patriotic Party protect the interests of working people and advocate for collective responsibility.

Belarusian Social and Democratic Parties

These include the Belarusian Social Democratic Assembly, the Belarusian Social Democratic Party (Hramada), the Social Democratic Party of Popular Accord, and the Belarusian Green Party.

Liberal Parties

Liberal parties include the Liberal Democratic Party, the United Civic Party, the Conservative Christian Party – BNF, and the BNF Party.

Other Parties

The Belarusian Social and Sports Party and the Republican Party do not manifest their ideological principles.

Banned Parties

Several parties have been banned, including the Belarusian Popular Front "Adradžeńnie", the United Democratic Party of Belarus, the Belarusian Peasant Party, the Belarusian National Socialist Party, and the Belarusian Independence Party.

Parties That Have Never Been Registered

Some parties have never been registered, including the National Bolshevik Party of Belarus, the Party of Freedom and Progress, and the Belarusian Christian Democracy.

Deregistered Parties

Several parties have been deregistered, including the BPF Party, the Belarusian Green Party, the Belarusian Left Party "A Just World", the Belarusian Women's Party "Nadzieja", the Conservative Christian Party – BPF, the United Civic Party, the Belarusian Social Democratic Party (Assembly), and the Belarusian Social Democratic Party (People's Assembly).

The country's foreign relations

Belarus has diplomatic relations with 183 countries worldwide and is represented internationally by 74 foreign missions in 57 countries. The country has been a member of the United Nations since its founding and has joined organisations such as the CIS, CSTO, EAEU, OSCE, and the Non-Aligned Movement. Belarus has shown no aspirations to join the European Union but maintains a bilateral relationship with the bloc.

Belarus–Russia Relations

Russia remains the largest and most important partner for Belarus in both the political and economic fields. Belarus relies heavily on Russia for export markets and the supply of raw materials and components. The two countries have been in a supranational union since 2 April 1996, and the framework for the Union of Russia and Belarus was set out in the Treaty on the Formation of a Community of Russia and Belarus (1996), the Treaty on Russia-Belarus Union, the Union Charter (1997), and the Treaty of the Formation of a Union State (1999). The integration treaties contained commitments to monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common defence and foreign policy.

Belarus–European Union Relations

Following the recognition of Belarus as an independent state in December 1991 by the European Community, EC/EU-Belarus relations initially experienced steady progress. The signature of the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) in 1995 signalled a commitment to political, economic, and trade cooperation. However, progress in EU-Belarus relations stalled in 1996 after serious setbacks to the development of democracy and the Drazdy conflict. The EU did not recognise the 1996 constitution, which replaced the 1994 constitution, and decided against Belarus in 1997, suspending bilateral relations at the ministerial level and freezing EU technical assistance programs. In 2005, the EU adopted a position aimed at imposing travel restrictions on officials from Belarus responsible for fraudulent parliamentary elections and a referendum, as well as for human rights violations during subsequent peaceful political demonstrations in Minsk. In 2012, Belarus expelled all Swedish diplomats and closed its embassy in Stockholm after a Swedish PR firm released teddy bears carrying pro-democracy flyers in parachutes over Minsk.

Belarus–United States Relations

The United States recognised the independence of the Republic of Belarus on 25 December 1991, and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 28 December 1991. The US supports a sovereign, independent Belarus that respects the rights and voices of the Belarusian people. However, relations have soured due to accusations by the US that Belarus has been undemocratic, and Belarus, in turn, has accused the US of interfering in its internal affairs. The US has encouraged Belarus to conclude and adhere to agreements with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on the program of macroeconomic stabilisation and related reform measures, as well as to undertake increased privatisation and to create a favourable climate for business and investment. The Belarus Democracy Act of 2004, unanimously passed by the US Congress, further strained relations. In 2008, the Belarusian government ejected the US Ambassador from the country, and the US closed its embassy in Minsk in February 2022.

Belarus–Baltic Relations

In 2005, the Belarusian authorities claimed that their pro-western Polish neighbours were trying to destabilise the government of Belarus. This led to a media campaign against Poland, and both countries expelled each other's diplomats. The dispute escalated further when Poland recalled its ambassador from Belarus for indefinite consultations and called on the European Union to impose sanctions on the Belarusian leadership to curtail human rights abuses.

Relations with Other Countries

Due to strained relations with the US and the European Union, as well as occasional high-level disputes with Russia over prices on core imported natural resources such as oil and gas, Belarus aims to develop better relations with countries in other regions, including the Middle East, Asia, and Latin America. Belarus has an ongoing discussion to relaunch IMF-backed reforms, concluding an arrangement for an IMF Staff-Monitored Program (SMP) in 2001. However, the authorities did not follow through with reforms as hoped, and the future of IMF-backed cooperation is uncertain. Belarus has diplomatic relations with countries such as Argentina, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Cuba, Georgia, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Serbia, South Korea, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, and many others.

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