Belarus And Poland: A Complex Historical Relationship

Belarus is a country in Eastern Europe that shares a border with Poland. The two countries have a complex geopolitical relationship, with Belarus being one of Russia's few close allies since the full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. Belarus has granted asylum to a former Polish judge, Tomasz Szmydt, who defected to the country in May 2024, citing Poland's harmful and unjust policies towards Belarus and Russia as his reason for leaving. This has intensified the focus on Poland as a target for Russian intelligence activities. There is also a Polish minority in Belarus, numbering officially around 288,000 according to the 2019 census, although the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland estimates this number to be as high as 1,100,000. The situation of this Polish minority has been steadily improving since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, with Poles in Belarus re-establishing Polish language schools and their legal right to participate in religious life. However, the attitude of the new authorities towards the Polish minority is not very consistent, and local levels of the Belarusian government are largely unwilling to accept the aspirations of their ethnic Poles.

Polish minority in Belarus

Belarus is home to a significant Polish minority, which officially numbers around 288,000 people according to the 2019 census. However, estimates vary, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland suggesting a figure as high as 1,100,000. This makes the Polish community the second-largest ethnic minority in Belarus, after the Russians, constituting around 3.1% of the total population. The majority of Poles live in the western regions, with a notable presence in the Grodno oblast, Sapotskin, and the Voranava District.

The Polish minority in Belarus has a long and intricate history. The lands of modern-day Belarus have been shaped by Polish influence and have produced notable Polish figures, such as the writer Mickiewicz and the scientist Domejko. The Polish language and culture have left an indelible mark on the region.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the sovereign Republic of Belarus, the situation for the Polish minority initially improved. Polish language schools were re-established, and religious freedoms were regained. However, in recent years, the relationship between Poland and Belarus has deteriorated, impacting the Polish minority. Belarus's support for Russia in the war with Ukraine and its close ties with the Kremlin have created tensions with Poland, a vocal supporter of Ukraine and a member of NATO and the EU.

The Polish minority in Belarus has faced repression and discrimination from the Belarusian authorities, particularly under the government of Alexander Lukashenko. There have been reports of detentions, fabricated charges, and sentencing of members of the Union of Poles in Belarus, an organisation that promotes Polish culture, tradition, education, and language learning. The Belarusian government has accused Poland and the European Union of using this group to foment unrest. These actions have drawn criticism and calls for the release of detained individuals from Poland and the international community, citing violations of the rights of minorities and international obligations.

The linguistic landscape of the Polish minority in Belarus is also unique. While a slight majority use Belarusian in their daily lives, they are surrounded by a predominantly Russian-speaking ethnic Belarusian population. This situation reflects the geographical distribution of the Polish minority within Belarus and the historical influences that have shaped the country's linguistic landscape.

Belarusian Poles' use of the Polish language

The Polish minority in Belarus numbers 288,000 according to the 2019 census. However, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland estimates that there could be up to 1,100,000 Poles in the country. This makes them the second-largest ethnic minority in Belarus, after Russians. The majority of Poles live in the Western regions, with 223,119 in the Grodno Oblast.

Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the situation of the Polish minority has been steadily improving. Poles in Belarus began re-establishing Polish language schools and their legal right to participate in religious life. However, the attitude of the new authorities towards the Polish minority is not very consistent, and local levels of the Belarusian government are largely unwilling to accept the aspirations of their ethnic Poles.

In today's Belarus, there are only two schools with Polish as the language of instruction – one in Hrodna and one in Vaŭkavysk. This is despite the fact that, in 2009, Belarus was home to 295,000 ethnic Poles, with almost 80% of them residing in the Hrodna region. The construction of these two schools and their infrastructure were financed by the Republic of Poland, but they operate within the framework of the Belarusian state education system. As of the 2017-18 school year, only 840 students studied in both institutions, with two-thirds attending the school in Hrodna and one-third in Vaŭkavysk.

The unusual linguistic situation in Belarus means that a slight majority of Poles use Belarusian, while a majority of ethnic Belarusians use Russian. This arose because the Poles in Belarus live mostly in the Belarusian-speaking parts of the country, whereas Russian now dominates in Minsk and most of eastern Belarus. Very few Belarusian Poles use Polish in everyday life.

Belarus-Poland border crisis

Belarus and Poland share a border that has been the site of a major international crisis since 2021. The crisis involves a large number of migrants, mostly from the Middle East and North Africa, who have attempted to cross the border from Belarus into Poland, Lithuania, and Latvia. While Belarus has denied involvement, the crisis is widely seen as a form of hybrid warfare undertaken by the Belarusian government in response to deteriorating relations with the European Union (EU) following the disputed 2020 Belarusian presidential election.

The crisis began in July 2021 when the Belarusian president, Alexander Lukashenko, threatened to "flood" the EU with "drugs and migrants". Belarusian authorities, state-controlled travel agencies, and airlines operating in the Middle East began advertising tours to Belarus and promoting easy entry into the EU. Those who arrived in Belarus were then instructed on how to cross the EU border and what to tell border guards. Between August and December 2021, tens of thousands of unauthorized border crossing attempts were recorded, with at least 20 migrants dying during the following winter due to the actions of Poland. While attempted border crossings fell sharply the following year, the numbers began rising again in the spring of 2024.

In response to the crisis, Poland, Lithuania, and Latvia each declared states of emergency and announced their intentions to build border walls. The EU sent supporting officers and patrol cars to Lithuania, and 12 EU governments stated their support for a physical barrier along the border. Poland and Lithuania eventually completed their barriers along the border with Belarus without EU funding.

The crisis has also led to increased tensions between Belarus and Poland, with Poland sending thousands of extra troops to the border following an alleged incursion by Belarusian military helicopters in August 2024. Poland's government has also accused Belarus of allowing Wagner mercenaries, who are present in Belarus, to move towards the border.

The Belarus-Poland border crisis has had significant humanitarian consequences, with migrants facing harsh conditions and a lack of adequate food, water, and shelter. Human rights organizations have accused Belarusian authorities of manufacturing the crisis and exploiting migrants, while also criticizing Polish authorities for not allowing journalists, doctors, and non-governmental organizations to access the border area.

Belarus grants asylum to a former Polish judge

Belarus has granted asylum to a former Polish judge, Tomasz Szmydt, who faced espionage charges in Poland. Szmydt defected to Belarus in May 2024, citing Poland's "harmful and unjust" policy toward Belarus and Russia as the reason for his departure. He also claimed that he was being persecuted for political reasons.

Szmydt's defection brought attention to Poland as a target for Russian intelligence activity and raised questions about his rapid rise through the Polish justice system. He was known in Poland for his involvement in a 2019 online smear campaign against other judges, which was sponsored by the Justice Ministry under the previous right-wing government. However, in 2022, he appeared to switch sides, exposing what he claimed was unethical behaviour by judges close to the ruling party.

The Internal Security Agency of Poland launched an investigation into Szmydt's access to classified information, and he was put on a wanted list with the potential for an international arrest warrant. Polish officials are concerned about the potential harm Szmydt's knowledge of classified information could cause to Poland and its Western allies.

Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko, in a decree granting citizenship to 257 people, described Szmydt as facing political persecution in Poland. Belarus has been a close ally of Russia since its invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, and Lukashenko has allowed Moscow to use Belarusian territory to support its military operations.

Polish-Belarusian relations

Poland and Belarus share a border and have a shared history, having both been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and later the Russian Empire. They joined the United Nations together in October 1945 as original members.

Cultural relations between the two countries are quite friendly. There is a Polish minority in Belarus, numbering officially 288,000 according to the 2019 census, although the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Poland estimates the number to be as high as 1,100,000. Similarly, there is a Belarusian minority in Poland, with 48,700 Belarusians living in the country according to the 2002 census. Both minorities are officially recognised by their host governments.

Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the sovereign Republic of Belarus, the situation of the Polish minority in Belarus has improved. Poles in Belarus have re-established Polish language schools and their legal right to participate in religious life. However, the attitude of the new authorities towards the Polish minority is not always consistent, and local levels of the Belarusian government are largely unwilling to accept the aspirations of their ethnic Poles.

In recent years, relations between Poland and Belarus have significantly deteriorated. During the 2020 Belarusian presidential election, Belarusian authorities employed violent methods to crack down on anti-government protests, consisting of various human rights violations. Poland strongly condemned these measures and backed the Belarusian opposition, angering President Lukashenko. In response, Lukashenko claimed that Belarus had closed its EU borders and deployed additional troops. Poland has also supported democracy actions in Belarus, including the unprecedented protest against President Lukashenko in 2020, and has offered refuge to opposition leaders.

In August 2021, Poland deployed 15,000 troops to guard its eastern frontier with Belarus following a sudden influx of refugees. A standoff ensued between the two armies, with border guards and refugees caught in between. Poland accused Belarus of engaging in hybrid warfare, while Belarus accused Poland of pushing back migrants by force. Poland has since constructed a state border barrier between the two countries.

In March 2023, Warsaw closed its most important border crossing with Belarus, causing economic disruption for truckers and businesses. Minsk responded by banning Polish truckers from using its border crossings in Lithuania and Latvia.

In July 2022, the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Belarus expressed concern about "attempts by individual Polish politicians to initiate the return of the so-called Polish ancestral lands, which means the western regions of Ukraine and Belarus." In the same year, a number of Polish places of national remembrance in Belarus were destroyed. Due to the increasingly tense relationship between the two countries, Poland recommended its citizens leave Belarus in October 2022.

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