Belarus: A Prorupted State? Analyzing The Country's Political Structure

Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Belarus covers an area of 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) and has a population of 9.1 million. The country has a hemiboreal climate and is divided administratively into six regions. Minsk, the capital and largest city, is governed separately as a city with special status.

Belarus has a long and complex history, with different states controlling its lands over the centuries. It gained independence from the Soviet Union on 25 August 1991 and has since retained close ties with Russia, with the two countries signing the Union State Foundation Treaty in 1999 to create a politically integrated confederation. Belarus has a presidential republic form of government, with Alexander Lukashenko serving as the first and only president since 1994.

In terms of geography, Belarus is relatively flat and contains large tracts of marshy land, with about 40% of the country covered by forests. It has a cool continental climate and a variety of plant and animal life.

Belarus's history of foreign rule

Belarus has a long history of foreign rule, having been controlled by different states and empires throughout its history. Here is an overview of Belarus's history of foreign rule:

Early History

During the medieval period, various states controlled the lands of modern-day Belarus, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The territory of modern-day Belarus was also inhabited by Baltic tribes as early as the 3rd century, before being taken over by Slavic tribes in the 5th century.

Russian Rule

In the 18th century, Belarus came under the control of the Russian Empire. This period was marked by policies of Russification, which aimed to assimilate the Belarusian population into Russian culture and Orthodoxy. During this time, the use of the Belarusian language was banned in schools, and Belarusian publications were targeted by the government.

Soviet Rule

After the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent civil war, Belarus experienced a period of instability, with various states competing for legitimacy. Ultimately, the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) emerged as the dominant force and became a founding member of the Soviet Union in 1922. During the Soviet era, Belarus underwent significant economic and social transformations, including the collectivization of agriculture and the development of heavy industry.

Nazi Occupation

During World War II, Belarus was occupied by Nazi Germany and suffered devastating losses, with a quarter of its population perishing and its economic infrastructure severely damaged. The Nazi occupation also witnessed the establishment of a partisan movement, which played a crucial role in the country's resistance against the invaders.

Post-War Soviet Rule

After the war, Belarus was reincorporated into the Soviet Union and became a founding member of the United Nations. The post-war period was marked by continued Sovietization policies, including the promotion of Russian language and culture, as well as the suppression of religious and cultural freedoms.

Independence

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Belarus gained independence and adopted a new constitution in 1994. However, the country has maintained close ties with Russia, and the two countries formed a supranational union, the Union State, aiming for greater political and economic integration. Despite its independence, Belarus has faced criticism for its authoritarian style of government under President Alexander Lukashenko, who has been in power since 1994.

The country's independence and sovereignty

Belarus, officially known as the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It was previously known as Belorussia or White Russia and was the smallest of the three Slavic republics included in the Soviet Union.

Belarusians share a distinct ethnic identity and language but have rarely enjoyed political sovereignty. The territory that is now Belarus underwent partition and changed hands repeatedly, resulting in a complex history.

Early History

In the early centuries AD, the Slavs settled in the region, gradually replacing the earlier Baltic culture. In the 6th to 9th centuries, East Slavs formed the first political associations – unions of tribes. The first recorded accounts of Polotsk and the Polotsk Duchy in the territory of modern Vitebsk date back to the 9th century.

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania

From the 13th to the 16th centuries, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a powerful state spanning modern-day Belarus, Lithuania, Ukraine, and western Russia. It began its rise under the reign of Mindovg (Mindaugas) and lost its authority after a series of wars in the 16th century.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

In 1569, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland signed the Union of Lublin, forming a federative state called Rzecz Pospolita. This marked the start of a turbulent period in Belarusian history, with the state being drawn into wars with European powers and Russia.

The Russian Empire

As a result of the partition of Rzecz Pospolita, Belarus became part of the Russian Empire in the late 18th century. The Russian government pursued a policy of Russification in these new territories. During this period, Belarus experienced a string of conflicts, including revolts, invasions, and the Great Rebellion headed by Kastus Kalinovski in 1863-1864.

World War I and the Interwar Period

During World War I, Belarusian territory was the scene of bloody battles between German and Russian forces. In March 1918, Belarus signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, exiting the war. The same year, the Belarusian People's Republic briefly declared independence before being forcibly absorbed into the Soviet Union by the Bolsheviks.

World War II

In 1939, two weeks after the outbreak of World War II, the Red Army moved into West Belarus. The country was fully occupied by the German army in September 1941, and a partisan movement emerged, becoming the biggest movement in Europe before 1944. The country was liberated by the Red Army in 1944, and in 1945, Belarus became a founding member of the United Nations.

Post-World War II and Soviet Rule

After World War II, Belarus was heavily damaged, losing about a quarter of its population and half of its economic resources. During the Soviet era, agricultural and economic policies led to famine and political repression. The Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922.

Independence and the Lukashenko Era

On July 27, 1990, the parliament of the Byelorussian SSR proclaimed the country's sovereignty, and on August 25, 1991, Belarus gained independence from the Soviet Union. The country adopted a new constitution in 1994, and Alexander Lukashenko was elected as the first president in the country's first and only free election after independence.

Since then, Lukashenko has consolidated authoritarian control through extensive repression and corrupt practices. Belarus has retained close ties with Russia, and in 1999, the two countries signed the Union State Foundation Treaty, aiming for political and economic integration while maintaining their independence. This relationship has been complex, with Belarus at times resisting Russian pressure for further integration.

In recent years, Belarus has faced international sanctions due to human rights violations, electoral fraud, and its role in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Despite these challenges, Lukashenko has maintained his grip on power, and the country's independence and sovereignty remain a complex and evolving aspect of Eastern European geopolitics.

Belarus's relationship with Russia

Belarus and Russia have a close historical and cultural relationship, and both countries share a land border. Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market. Russia is Belarus's largest and most important economic and political partner, and both countries are members of various international organisations, including the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Eurasian Economic Union, the Collective Security Treaty Organization, and the United Nations.

The two countries signed the Agreement on the Establishment of the Union State of Belarus and Russia in 1999, which set a legal basis for integration between the two nations. The agreement outlined several major goals, including ensuring peaceful and democratic development, establishing a single economic and customs area, and ensuring security and fighting crime. The Union State treaty also called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defence policy. However, the future of the union has been placed in doubt due to Belarus's repeated delays in monetary union and the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution.

Despite their close relationship, there have been tensions between Belarus and Russia in recent years. In 2020, Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko publicly accused Russian President Vladimir Putin of trying to incorporate Belarus into Russia, leading to Russia cutting economic subsidies for Belarus. There have also been disputes over energy supplies, with Russia halting gas imports to Belarus in 2004 due to price disagreements. In addition, Russia banned dairy imports from Belarus in 2009, citing non-compliance with new regulations, though Belarus accused Russia of employing the ban for political purposes.

Russia and Belarus have also coordinated their military activities and conducted joint military drills. In 2022, Russia was permitted to stage part of its invasion of Ukraine from Belarusian territory, and Belarus has stated that Russia can bring its nuclear weapons onto Belarusian soil. However, Belarus has not expressed a desire to join NATO and cannot do so due to its membership in the Collective Security Treaty Organization.

The Union State of Russia and Belarus

Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. The country has a population of 9.1 million and is led by a highly centralized and authoritarian government, with President Alexander Lukashenko at the helm since 1994.

In 2000, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, forming the Union State. The Union State of Russia and Belarus, officially referred to as the Union State, is a supranational union with the stated aim of deepening the relationship between the two states through economic and defence policy integration. The Union State is based on a previous international treaty between Russia and Belarus, signed on April 2, 1997, which established a Russian military presence in Belarus. The Union Treaty, signed on December 8, 1999, aimed to create a confederation with a common currency, similar to the former Soviet Union. While both countries retain their independence, the Union State grants its citizens the right to move and reside freely within the territory of the other state.

The Union State is ruled through the Supreme State Council, which includes the heads of state, respective governments, and both chambers of parliament. As of 2024, the current president of the Supreme State Council is Alexander Lukashenko. The Council of Ministers is another governing body, composed of the member states' prime ministers, ministers of foreign affairs, economy, and finance, and the State Secretary of the Union. The Union State has exclusive jurisdiction over the creation of a single economic space, monetary union, common defence policy, and other areas.

The formation of the Union State can be traced back to negotiations and agreements between Russian President Boris Yeltsin and Belarusian President Lukashenko from 1995 to 1999. The first significant step was the Treaty of Friendship, Good-Neighbourliness and Cooperation, signed in 1995, which sought deeper economic integration and the formation of a single economic space. This was followed by the Treaty on the creation of the Community of Russia and Belarus in 1996, which aimed for further integration in economic, humanitarian, foreign policy, security, and other domains. The 1997 Treaty on the Union of Belarus and Russia stipulated the implementation of a coordinated foreign and defence policy, joint citizenship, and a common market.

While the Union State has been successful in military cooperation, many economic plans have not been implemented or were reversed soon after implementation, such as the monetary union and the common energy market. Belarus and Russia have also been unable to reach an agreement on oil and gas prices, the coordination of tax policies, and the creation of a single currency. Despite these challenges, the Union State continues to work towards deepening the relationship between the two countries, with a focus on economic integration and defence cooperation.

The country's human rights record

Belarus has a poor human rights record. The country has been described as "'Europe's last dictatorship', and its president, Alexander Lukashenko, as 'Europe's last dictator'.

Lukashenko has ruled Belarus with an iron fist since 1994, consolidating authoritarian control through extensive repression and corrupt practices. The country has continued several Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of large sections of the economy, and is the only European country that continues to use capital punishment.

The country ranks low in international measurements of freedom of the press and civil liberties. It has been criticised by Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch for its human rights violations and persecution of non-governmental organisations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition politicians. Belarus's Democracy Index rating is the lowest in Europe, and the country is labelled as "not free" by Freedom House.

Under Lukashenko, the country has also faced allegations of election rigging, with the 2020 presidential election that saw him win a sixth term sparking mass protests. Neighbouring countries Poland and Lithuania, as well as the European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, do not recognise Lukashenko as the legitimate president of Belarus due to the rigged election and political oppression during the ongoing protests.

Belarus has also been accused of human rights violations in its treatment of detainees, with reports of torture and ill-treatment, as well as violence against women and children, including sexual abuse and rape.

The country has also been criticised for its anti-LGBTQ+ stance, with LGBTQ+ rights in the country ranked among the lowest in Europe. In addition, a new law introduced in 2014 prohibits kolkhoz workers (around 9% of the total workforce) from leaving their jobs at will, with similar regulations introduced for the forestry industry in 2012.

Belarus has also been accused of using migrants as a weapon against the European Union, with Belarusian officials pushing migrants across the border in retaliation for sanctions imposed on the country.

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