Angola's Peripheral Status: A Complex Geopolitical Narrative

Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country on the west-central coast of Southern Africa. It is a large country with a long coastline and central plateau, bordering Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Angola has a population of over 33 million people and is the second-largest Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country in both total area and population. It is a unitary multiparty republic with a presidential government.

Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves and is one of the highest oil-producing countries in sub-Saharan Africa. However, despite its economic growth, Angola faces significant socioeconomic challenges, including poverty, high maternal and child mortality rates, and illiteracy. Angola's economy is heavily dependent on the oil sector, which has made it vulnerable to external shocks and undermined its macroeconomic stability.

Angola's history has been marked by colonial rule and conflict. It was a Portuguese colony until it gained independence in 1975, after which it was embroiled in a civil war that lasted from 1975 to 2002. The civil war left the country ravaged, with issues such as land mines and malnutrition. Since the end of the war, Angola has been working towards rebuilding and has made progress in areas such as healthcare and education.

Angola's economy and natural resources

Angola's economy is among the fastest-growing in the world, especially since the end of its civil war in 2002. However, economic growth is highly uneven, with most of the nation's wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small part of the population. The country's economy is heavily dependent on its oil sector, which has increased its vulnerability to external shocks and undermined macroeconomic stability. In addition, strong real exchange rate appreciation has stunted the non-oil economy and limited economic diversification and job creation.

Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves. It is one of the largest exporters of petroleum in sub-Saharan Africa, and production has nearly tripled since independence. The country is also a significant producer of diamonds, with yearly production at 6 million carats. In addition, Angola has large reserves of iron ore, copper, manganese, gold, phosphates, uranium, feldspar, and platinum.

The country's agricultural sector has suffered from severe wartime conditions, including the massive displacement of rural people and the extensive laying of land mines throughout the countryside. As a result, Angola now imports over half of its food. However, small-scale agricultural production has increased in recent years due to de-mining efforts, infrastructure improvements, and the return of refugees and internally displaced persons to agricultural areas.

Angola's manufacturing sector was severely disrupted after independence due to nationalization and the loss of skilled labour. Industries in Angola produce construction materials, refined petroleum and equipment for the petroleum industry, processed food, textiles, and electrical goods. The construction industry has seen increased activity in recent years, as reconstruction is a priority for the government.

The country's main import partners are Portugal, China, and France, from which it imports consumer goods, capital goods, and transport equipment. Angola generally has a positive balance of trade, with its exports dominated by hydrocarbons, followed by a small quantity of diamonds.

Angola's economy faces significant challenges, including high poverty rates, blatant social inequality, and persistent authoritarianism. In addition, the country's infrastructure has suffered from the effects of war and a lack of maintenance. However, the government has implemented various development plans, such as the National Climate Change Strategy, to address these issues and promote economic growth and diversification.

Angola's political system

The country's government is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive branch is made up of the president, vice-presidents, and the Council of Ministers, which advises the president. The legislative branch is a 220-seat unicameral legislature, the National Assembly, with members elected from multi-member province-wide and nationwide constituencies. The judiciary is made up of municipal and provincial courts, with the Supreme Court as the highest body.

Angola's politics take place within a multi-party system, with the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) being the ruling party since independence in 1975. The MPLA abandoned its Marxist ideology in 1990 and adopted social democracy as its platform. Other major parties include the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), the Liberal Democratic Party, and the Social Renewal Party.

Angola's constitution was last adopted in 2010, which eliminated presidential elections and introduced a system where the president and vice-president of the winning party in the parliamentary elections automatically become the country's leaders. This has led to criticism of the system being classified as an authoritarian regime, with the president controlling all other organs of the state and a lack of separation of powers.

Angola's history

In the 16th century, Portuguese explorers established relations with the Kingdom of Kongo, which stretched from modern-day Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal area through a series of treaties and wars, and their interest in Angola quickly turned to the slave trade. By the 19th century, Angola was the largest source of slaves for the Americas.

The banning of the slave trade in the 19th century severely disrupted the Kingdom of Kongo's economy. European settlers gradually established themselves in the interior, and the Portuguese colony that became Angola did not achieve its present borders until the early 20th century.

After a protracted anti-colonial struggle from 1961 to 1974, Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975 as a one-party Republic. However, competing movements continued to fight for power in the new nation, and the country descended into a devastating civil war. The civil war was a major Cold War conflict, with the Soviet Union and Cuba supporting the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), and the United States and South Africa supporting the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). The civil war lasted until 2002, and the MPLA has remained in power since.

Since the end of the civil war, Angola has emerged as a relatively stable constitutional republic with one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. However, economic growth is highly uneven, with most of the nation's wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small part of the population. Angola continues to face a variety of socioeconomic problems, including poverty, high maternal and child mortality, and illiteracy.

Angola's population and demographics

Angola's population is estimated to be 37.2 million as of 2023. The country is multicultural and multiethnic, with a variety of ethnic and linguistic groups. The three largest ethnic groups are the Ovimbundu (37%), Ambundu (25%), and Bakongo (13%). Other groups include the Chokwe, Ovambo, Ganguela, Xindonga, and others. The population also includes people of mixed European and African descent (7%), as well as smaller numbers of white Europeans (1%) and Chinese (1.35%).

Portuguese is the official language of Angola, but several Bantu languages are also widely spoken, including Umbundu, Kimbundu, and Kikongo. Religion is predominantly Christian, with over half of the population being Catholic, and a quarter belonging to various Protestant denominations. A small minority of the population practices traditional indigenous religions.

Angola has a low standard of living, with high infant mortality and low life expectancy. The country has a high fertility rate, with women having an average of more than 5 children. The population is largely concentrated in urban areas, particularly the capital city of Luanda.

Angola's climate and geography

Angola is located on the western coast of Southern Africa, between Namibia and the Republic of the Congo. It is bordered by Zambia to the east and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north and northeast. Angola has an exclave province, Cabinda, which borders the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The country has a total land size of 1,246,700 square kilometres (481,400 square miles), making it the 22nd largest country in the world.

Angola's landscape is diverse, ranging from the semi-desert Atlantic littoral bordering Namibia's "Skeleton Coast" to the densely populated rainforest interior and rugged highlands in the south. The coastal plain is narrow, stretching from 15 to 125 miles (25 to 200 kilometres) in width, and consists of alluvia, chalk, and sand, with oil-bearing formations in the northern two-thirds. The coastal plain rises abruptly to the east, forming a series of escarpments that lead to the rugged highlands. The highest point in the country is Mount Moco, reaching an elevation of 8,596 feet (2,620 metres).

The Lunda Divide, a watershed on the plateau, separates the north- and south-flowing rivers. The Cuango (Kwango) River flows out of Angola into the Congo River, which forms the boundary between Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Cuanza (Kwanza) River, the largest river entirely within Angola, flows northward for roughly half its length before bending westward and emptying into the sea near Luanda. The Cunene River (Kunene) in the southwestern part of the country flows southward before turning west and marking the border with Namibia.

Angola has a tropical climate with distinct rainy and dry seasons. The rainy season, known as the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), lasts from October to May and is characterised by high humidity and hot temperatures. The dry season, called "Cacimbo," occurs from June to September and is cooler, with morning mist. The rainy season in the north may last up to seven months, while in the south, it typically begins in November and ends in February. Angola's climate is influenced by the Benguela Cold Current, resulting in lower precipitation along the coast.

The average annual temperature in Angola varies across the country, with Soyo at the mouth of the Congo River averaging 79 °F (26 °C) and Huambo on the central plateau averaging 67 °F (19 °C). The coolest months are July and August, during the dry season, when frost may form at higher altitudes.

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