Austria-Hungary's Ambitions: Germany's Fate In Wwi

Austria-Hungary and Germany were allies during World War I, with Germany being the dominant power in the partnership. Austria-Hungary was a multi-national constitutional monarchy consisting of two sovereign states, Austria and Hungary, with a single monarch. Germany, on the other hand, was a young nation-state that had recently unified and was still learning to navigate its new position as a political and economic power. While Germany saw Austria-Hungary as a junior partner, Austria-Hungary had a more ambivalent view of the relationship, feeling admiration for Prussian militarism while also struggling with having to take second place.

The alliance between the two countries was formed in 1879, and together, they were known as the Central Powers, along with the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. This alliance was significant in the lead-up to World War I, as the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in June 1914 sparked a series of events that eventually led to the outbreak of the war. With German encouragement, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, which then brought Russia, France, and Britain into the conflict.

While Germany and Austria-Hungary fought together during World War I, there were also signs of tension and rivalry between the two allies. Germany often underestimated the strength of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, and there was a lack of military-strategic cooperation between them on the eve of the war. As the war progressed, Austria-Hungary became increasingly dependent on German assistance, and by 1916, the supreme command was taken over entirely by the Germans.

Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany

Austria-Hungary and Germany formed the Dual Alliance in 1879, a defensive pact in which both powers promised to support each other in the event of an attack by Russia. The treaty also promised benevolent neutrality if either nation was attacked by another European power, which was generally taken to mean France. The alliance was surprising to many, given the two nations' differences, but their shared distrust of Russia united them.

Otto von Bismarck, the German Chancellor, was the architect of the alliance. He wanted to portray Germany as a peacemaker and preserve the European status quo, and he believed that allying with Austria-Hungary would help achieve these goals. Bismarck also wanted to prevent the isolation of the German Empire, which had only recently been founded, and he knew that Russia would be unlikely to wage war against both empires.

The Dual Alliance became the Triple Alliance in 1882 when Italy joined. Italy sought the support of Germany and Austria-Hungary against France after losing a colonial competition with them in North Africa. The addition of Italy to the alliance further isolated France and strengthened the alliance. However, Italy's alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany was a defensive pact, and Italy did not immediately join them in World War I, instead remaining neutral until 1915 when it joined the Entente powers and declared war on Austria-Hungary and, later, Germany.

During World War I, Austria-Hungary and Germany were known as the Central Powers, along with the Ottoman Empire and, later, Bulgaria. Despite their alliance, the two nations had a complicated relationship, with differing aims and strategies. Austria-Hungary, for example, was focused on Serbia and the Balkans, while Germany was principally concerned with the conflict with France. There was little in the way of military-strategic cooperation between the two allies, and their respective military staffs operated in secrecy from one another.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Sophie, were shot at close range while being driven through Sarajevo, the provincial capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had been annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908. The assassins were a group of six Bosnian Serbs from the nationalist group Mlada Bosna (Young Bosnians), supplied by the Black Hand, a Serbian secret nationalist group. The political objective of the assassination was to free Bosnia and Herzegovina of Austria-Hungarian rule and establish a common South Slav ("Yugoslav") state.

The day of the assassination, 28 June, is the feast of St. Vitus (Vidovdan in Serbian) and commemorates the 1389 Battle of Kosovo against the Ottomans, in which Sultan Murad I was assassinated in his tent by a Serb. Princip and his fellow assassins were inspired by this heroism.

The assassination team was helped by the Black Hand, with support from Dragutin Dimitrijević, chief of the military intelligence section of the Serbian general staff, as well as from Major Vojislav Tankosić and Rade Malobabić, a Serbian intelligence agent. Tankosić provided bombs and pistols to the assassins and trained them in their use. The assassins were given access to the same clandestine network of safe houses and agents that Malobabić used for the infiltration of weapons and operatives into Austria-Hungary.

The assassins and key members of the clandestine network were tried in Sarajevo in October 1914. Twenty-five people were indicted, and five of the older prisoners were sentenced to be hanged. Princip was found guilty of murder and high treason and, as he was under 20, was sentenced to 20 years in jail. He died of tuberculosis in prison in April 1918.

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand stoked old tensions beyond the Balkans. The crisis spread as other powers pledged support for either Austria or Serbia. Austria-Hungary, with German encouragement, declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, and this act of war stirred up old tensions and anxieties across the continent. Russia's support of Serbia brought France into the conflict. Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August and France on 3 August. Germany's violation of Belgian neutrality and British fears of German domination in Europe brought Britain and its empire into the war on 4 August.

Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia

On July 28, 1914, exactly one month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. That evening, Austro-Hungarian artillery shelled the Serbian capital of Belgrade from the border town of Semlin (modern-day Zemun), effectively starting World War I. Command of the Austro-Hungarian invasion force was delegated to Feldzeugmeister Oskar Potiorek, the Governor-General of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who had been responsible for the security of Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Duchess Sophie of Hohenberg, in Sarajevo.

On the morning of August 12, 1914, the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army crossed the Drina River, effectively starting the first invasion of Serbia. During the first invasion of Serbia, which the Austro-Hungarian leadership euphemistically dubbed a punitive expedition, Austro-Hungarian forces occupied parts of Serbia for thirteen days. Their war aims were not only to eliminate Serbia as a threat but also to punish her for fuelling South Slav irredentism in the Monarchy. The occupation turned into a war of annihilation, accompanied by massacres of civilians and the taking of hostages. Austro-Hungarian troops committed a number of war crimes against the Serbian population, especially in the area of Mačva, where, according to historian Geoffrey Wawro, the Austro-Hungarian army savaged the civilian population in a wave of atrocities. During the short occupation, between 3,500 and 4,000 Serb civilians were killed in executions and acts of random violence by marauding troops.

Mass killings took place in numerous towns in northern Serbia. On August 17, 1914, in the Serbian town of Šabac, 120 residents—mostly women, children, and old men, who had previously been locked in a church—were shot and buried in the churchyard by Austro-Hungarian troops on the orders of Feldmarschall-Leutnant Kasimir von Lütgendorf. The remaining residents were beaten to death, hanged, stabbed, mutilated, or burned alive. A pit was later discovered in the village of Lešnica containing 109 dead peasants who were "bound together with a rope and encircled by wire"; they had been shot and immediately buried, even with some still alive.

These types of attacks were planned at the highest level. The ground for the escalation of violence was ideologically prepared by the commanders' verbal radicalism. On August 13, Potiorek ordered reprisal hangings, the taking of hostages, and arson by all units. Often, bodies were left hanging on the gallows, trees, or street lamps for days as a deterrent and as evidence of the Austro-Hungarian military's determination to deal with Serbian suspects. Many executions were photographed by Austro-Hungarian soldiers and officers; some of the images were reproduced as postcards and sold through the Austro-Hungarian army's official sales outlets.

The Swiss criminologist and physician Archibald Reiss reported on the atrocities committed by the Austro-Hungarian army in a report that was presented at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. Reiss recorded that the number of civilians killed in the invaded Serbian territory amounted to between 3,000 and 4,000, including a large number of women and children. In the region around Šabac, he counted 1,658 burned buildings. According to historian James Lyon, "the Habsburg forces engaged in an orgy of looting, rape, murder, mass extermination, and other atrocities". Reiss likened the Austro-Hungarian atrocities to the Rape of Belgium.

After delivering a major defeat to Austria-Hungary's invading "Balkan Armed Forces" at the Battle of Cer, the Royal Serbian Army liberated Šabac and reached the frontier banks of the Sava River, thereby bringing the first Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia to an end and securing the first Allied victory of World War I.

On September 8, 1914, the Austro-Hungarians launched a second invasion, a twin-pronged night attack across the Drina to secure a firm bridgehead. This time, engaging all their forces, the well-equipped Habsburg forces outnumbered the Serbs, who were short of munitions, two to one. Facing fierce resistance, the Fifth Army was pushed back into Bosnia while the Sixth Army's offensive was stopped by a strong Serbian counterattack. On October 23, the flagship of the Austro-Hungarian Danube Flotilla, the SMS Temes, which had shelled Belgrade on the first day of the war, was sunk by a mine on the Sava. Although it suffered nearly 30,000 casualties, and the invasion was temporarily halted, the Austro-Hungarian army retained a foothold in Serbia.

Convinced that Serbia was near defeat, Potiorek regrouped and launched a third offensive on November 5, 1914. Potiorek exploited the Austro-Hungarians' superiority in artillery, including large-calibre mortars, to capture Valjevo on November 15 and, with support from a monitor group of the Danube Flotilla as well as aerial reconnaissance, Belgrade on November 30, forcing the Royal Serbian Army to retreat.

In early December, the Royal Serbian Army launched a sustained counterattack, decisively defeating the Austro-Hungarians at the Battle of Kolubara and recapturing Belgrade a day after General Sarkotic's new military government had been established. By December 15, the Royal Serbian Army had captured Zemun, having crossed the border in pursuit of the Austro-Hungarians. Defeat at the hands of Serbia, a small Balkan peasant kingdom, wounded the pride of Austria-Hungary's military and civilian leadership. One Austrian officer was reported as saying that Potiorek would be shot if he appeared among his own troops. On December 22, Potiorek was relieved of his command and replaced by Archduke Eugen of Austria. Although Austria-Hungary had failed to defeat Serbia, the Royal Serbian Army had exhausted its military capability, losing 100,000 men in battle, and was forced to deal with a typhoid epidemic that further decimated the army and civilian population.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire's role in World War I

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a major player in the events leading up to World War I and during the conflict itself. It was a large, diverse, multi-ethnic empire that spanned central Europe, and its actions were key to the outbreak of the war.

The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian-backed terrorist, Gavrilo Princip. This event set off a chain of reactions that ultimately led to the war. Austria-Hungary, with German encouragement, used the assassination as a pretext to issue an ultimatum to Serbia, which was seen as a threat to the stability of its multi-ethnic empire. When Serbia only partially accepted the ultimatum, Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28, 1914, marking the beginning of World War I.

Alliances and Enemies

The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Dual Monarchy, was a constitutional monarchy consisting of two sovereign states, Austria and Hungary, with a single monarch. It was one of the Central Powers during World War I, along with the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The empire had a complex political structure, with each kingdom retaining a degree of autonomy, its own parliament, prime minister, and domestic self-government.

The empire's main enemies during the war included the Allies, particularly Serbia, Russia, and Italy. Serbia posed a threat to the stability of the empire due to its ambitions to unify the Slavic people in southeast Europe. Russia, as the protector of Serbia, was drawn into the conflict when Austria-Hungary declared war. Italy, which had previously been allied with Austria-Hungary, switched sides in 1915 and joined the Entente powers, hoping to gain territory from its former ally.

Military Campaigns and Casualties

The Austro-Hungarian Empire played a significant role in several military campaigns during World War I, including the Serbian, Eastern, Italian, and Romanian fronts. The empire's military force consisted of three armies: two belonging to Austria and Hungary, respectively, and a newly created force called the Imperial and Royal Army. While the empire's military was relatively well-equipped and professional, it faced significant challenges due to internal political and ethnic divisions. Language barriers between officers and soldiers, who came from diverse ethnic backgrounds, hindered communication and morale.

The invasion of Serbia in 1914 proved to be a disaster for the Austro-Hungarian Army, resulting in heavy casualties and no territorial gains. However, with support from its allies, the empire managed to occupy Serbia in 1915 and force Romania out of the war in 1917. On other fronts, such as the Eastern Front and the Italian Front, the empire suffered severe casualties and setbacks.

Domestic Challenges and Dissolution

As the war progressed, the Austro-Hungarian Empire faced mounting challenges on the domestic front. The heavily rural empire depended heavily on agriculture, but with millions of men enlisted in the army, food production fell, and industrial production struggled to meet the demand for munitions. Inflation soared, and living conditions deteriorated, leading to unrest among the diverse ethnic groups within the empire. Nationalist movements gained momentum, and the empire faced the threat of disintegration as ethnic minorities demanded independence.

By 1918, the economic situation had deteriorated, and the Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed rapidly. Emperor Charles made concessions, granting autonomy to the peoples of the Austrian Empire, but these efforts failed to prevent the empire's dissolution. The Allies, particularly the United States, supported the nationalist movements, and various ethnic groups within the empire declared their independence. On November 3, 1918, the armistice between the Allies and Austria-Hungary was signed, effectively ending the empire's role in the war.

In conclusion, the Austro-Hungarian Empire's role in World War I was complex and multifaceted. Its actions were a key factor in the outbreak of the war, and it actively participated in military campaigns on multiple fronts. However, the empire faced significant challenges due to internal divisions and ultimately collapsed under the weight of economic woes and nationalist pressures during the latter stages of the war.

The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire

The Austro-Hungarian Empire's collapse was a result of multiple factors, including military setbacks, economic deterioration, and rising nationalist sentiments. Here is an overview of the key factors that led to the empire's disintegration:

Military Setbacks and Dependence on Germany

The Austro-Hungarian Empire suffered significant military setbacks during the early years of World War I. Its invasion of Serbia in 1914 ended in disaster, and it had to rely on German support to occupy Serbia in 1915. The empire's military was ill-equipped and poorly led, leading to heavy casualties and a loss of morale. By 1916, the Austro-Hungarian armed forces had become highly dependent on Germany, and their ability to act independently was severely limited. The collapse of the Italian front in 1918 was a significant blow, leading the Austrians to accept the Armistice of Villa Giusti.

Economic Deterioration and Food Shortages

The empire's economy suffered due to the prolonged war. Agricultural production declined as millions of men were enlisted in the army, and the transportation system became overwhelmed. Food shortages became a critical issue, with civilians facing starvation while officers lived comfortably. Inflation soared, wiping out the savings of the middle class. The economic hardships contributed to rising unrest and a decline in support for the war effort.

Rising Nationalist Sentiments and Political Instability

The multi-ethnic nature of the Austro-Hungarian Empire created tensions as nationalist sentiments grew. The Allies encouraged breakaway demands from minorities, and the empire faced the threat of disintegration. Leftist and liberal movements opposed the monarchy and supported separatism. Emperor Karl's attempts to preserve the empire by agreeing to self-governance for national groups were rejected, as they demanded full independence.

Dependence on Hungary for Supplies

The Hungarian half of the empire provided crucial supplies to the military, but by late 1916, food supply from Hungary became intermittent. The failure to secure an armistice with the Entente powers further weakened the empire's position. The political instability within the empire, with rising unrest among non-Hungarian and non-German populations, made the situation increasingly untenable.

In conclusion, the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was a result of a combination of military failures, economic hardships, rising nationalism, and political instability. The empire's dependence on Germany and Hungary further contributed to its decline, ultimately leading to its disintegration by the end of World War I.

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