The Austrian-Prussian Rivalry: A Historical Perspective

Austria and Prussia were the two most powerful German states in the Holy Roman Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries. The rivalry between the two states was characterised by major territorial conflicts and economic, cultural, and political differences. Austria was ruled by the Habsburg dynasty, while Prussia was a kingdom ruled by the Hohenzollern family. Prussia's increase in size and influence can be attributed to a succession of capable leaders, all of whom enjoyed long reigns. In 1740, King Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Austrian-controlled Silesia, starting the First Silesian War. This invasion sparked the pan-European War of the Austrian Succession. The rivalry between the two states culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which Prussia won, becoming the dominant German state.

The War of the Austrian Succession

The Conflict

The war was fought between two main factions. On one side stood Austria, backed by Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Hanover (collectively known as the Pragmatic Allies). On the opposing side were Prussia, France, Bavaria, and Saxony, who saw the succession crisis as an opportunity to challenge Habsburg power. As the conflict widened, other participants became involved, including Spain, Sardinia, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia.

The First Silesian War (1740-1742)

The First Silesian War was the opening phase of the War of the Austrian Succession and began with the Prussian invasion of Silesia, a wealthy Habsburg province, in December 1740. The Prussian army, led by King Frederick II, defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Mollwitz in April 1741 and quickly overran Silesia. This early Prussian victory exposed the weakness of the Habsburg dominions and ensured that the war would escalate.

The Expansion of the Conflict

Within a month of the Prussian invasion, France formed an alliance with Bavaria, Spain, and later Saxony and Prussia against Austria. The conflict soon spread beyond the borders of Silesia, with invasions of Bohemia, Bavaria, and the Austrian Netherlands (present-day Belgium). Austria's allies, including Britain, Hanoverians, and Hessians, scored a victory over the French at the Battle of Dettingen in Bavaria in June 1743. In 1744, the French overran much of western Flanders and laid siege to the fortress of Tournai, which fell in 1745.

The Second Silesian War (1744-1745)

In 1744, Prussia re-entered the war, launching the Second Silesian War. King Frederick II once again led the Prussian army and quickly captured Prague and other key cities in Bohemia. However, the Prussians faced a united front of Austrian, Saxon, and French forces, forcing them to retreat and ultimately leading to the Treaty of Dresden in December 1745, which confirmed Prussian possession of Silesia.

The War's Conclusion

By 1746, the war had reached a stalemate, with neither side able to achieve a decisive victory. The financial burden of the prolonged conflict pushed the powers towards negotiations, resulting in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in October 1748. The treaty preserved most of the Austrian inheritance for Maria Theresa, but Prussia retained control of Silesia. Additionally, none of the colonial conflicts between France and Britain were resolved.

The Silesian Wars

First Silesian War (1740-1742)

The First Silesian War was the first of three wars that formed part of the wider War of the Austrian Succession, in which Prussia was a member of a coalition seeking territorial gain at Austria's expense. In 1740, Frederick seized Silesia, a wealthy province that belonged to the Habsburgs. Maria Theresa, the new Habsburg empress, was unable to regain possession of Silesia, which remained under Prussian control at the end of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48).

Second Silesian War (1744-1745)

The Second Silesian War also formed part of the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1744, Prussia declared its intervention in the ongoing conflict on behalf of Emperor Charles Albert, and Frederick led soldiers across the frontier into Bohemia on 15 August. Prussian forces converged upon Prague, seizing the city on 16 September. This new threat drew the Austrian army back from France through Bavaria. The Prussians followed the retreating Austrian army into Bohemia, encamping along the Elbe while Frederick pursued a peace agreement.

Third Silesian War (1756-1763)

The Third Silesian War was a theatre of the global Seven Years' War, in which Austria led a coalition of powers aiming to seize Prussian territory. In 1756, Frederick preemptively invaded neighbouring Saxony, beginning the Third Silesian War. As Austria's and Prussia's allies joined the fighting, the conflict quickly widened into what became the pan-European Seven Years' War. The Prussians occupied Saxony in late 1756 and made large advances in Bohemia in early 1757, winning a series of battles while advancing to Prague.

Outcome

All three Silesian Wars are generally considered to have ended in Prussian victories, and the first resulted in Austria's cession of the majority of Silesia to Prussia. Prussia emerged from the Silesian Wars as a new European great power and the leading state of Protestant Germany, while Catholic Austria's defeat by a lesser German power significantly damaged the House of Habsburg's prestige. The conflict over Silesia foreshadowed a wider Austro-Prussian struggle for hegemony over the German-speaking peoples, which would later culminate in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.

The Austro-Prussian War

The war erupted due to a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which they had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. Prussia protested against Austria's decision to permit the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, claiming it breached the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria asserted that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights. The crisis escalated with both sides reinforcing their troops along the border and eventually declaring general mobilizations.

Prussia, led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, formed an alliance with Italy, linking the conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. Prussia also made secret alliances with France and did everything possible to prepare for war while provoking Austria. Prussia's outstanding generals, led by Helmuth von Moltke, meticulously planned for the war, acquiring modern weapons and taking advantage of their superior railway system for rapid mobilization and concentration of troops.

The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia. The Prussian armies, led by King William I, converged and met the Austrian forces at the Battle of Königgrätz on July 3, 1866. Superior Prussian organization, discipline, and weaponry decided the battle against Austrian numerical superiority, resulting in a decisive Prussian victory with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times higher. Austria rapidly sought peace after this defeat.

The Treaty of Prague, signed on August 23, 1866, formally concluded the war. The treaty resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs. Prussia annexed several territories, including Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, and several duchies, while Austria ceded control of Venetia to Italy. Prussia's victory enabled it to establish dominance over the northern German states and form the North German Confederation, excluding Austria and the other southern German states. This geopolitical reality within Europe lasted until World War I.

The German Dualism

The rivalry is largely considered to have begun with the death of the Habsburg Emperor Charles VI in 1740, when King Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Austrian-controlled Silesia, starting the First Silesian War. This war was the first of three Silesian Wars, which also included the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) and the Seven Years' War (1756-63). The War of the Austrian Succession began when Frederick II of Prussia attacked Silesia, a province in the kingdom of Bohemia and part of the Habsburg monarchy. Maria Theresa, the new Habsburg Empress, was unable to regain possession of Silesia, which remained under Prussian control at the end of the war. The Treaties of Dresden (1745) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) confirmed the Prussian conquest of Silesia.

The Prussian-Austrian rivalry continued during the Seven Years' War, which saw Prussia occupy Saxony, an Austrian ally. The Treaty of Hubertusburg of 1763 ended the war, with Prussia keeping Silesia but being forced to relinquish its occupation of Saxony. After these wars, Prussia and Austria dominated German affairs, with neither being powerful enough to dominate the other—this state of affairs became known as "the German dualism".

The rivalry culminated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which resulted in Prussia becoming the dominant German state. Prussia's victory in this conflict enabled it to turn its attention to France, which it defeated in the war of 1870-71, gaining control of Alsace-Lorraine. Following this war, Germany was officially unified under Emperor Wilhelm I, the Prussian king.

The Prussian Conquest of Silesia

In 1740, King Frederick II of Prussia, also known as Frederick the Great, seized Silesia, a wealthy province belonging to the Habsburgs with a population of about 1 million inhabitants. The newly crowned Habsburg empress, Maria Theresa, was unable to regain possession of Silesia, which remained under Prussian control at the end of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748.

The First Silesian War began in December 1740 when Frederick II of Prussia invaded Silesia, taking advantage of the Austrian succession crisis after the death of Emperor Charles VI. Despite several months of Austrian counterattacks, the Truce of Klein Schnellendorf in October 1741 left Frederick in control of Silesia. After further warfare, Maria Theresa decided to make peace, ceding most of Silesia to Prussia in the Treaty of Breslau (1742).

The Second Silesian War (1744–45) began when Prussia invaded Habsburg Bohemia in mid-1744. The war was fought mainly in Silesia, Bohemia, and Upper Saxony and ended in a Prussian victory with the Treaty of Dresden in December 1745, confirming Prussian control of Silesia.

The Third Silesian War (1756–62) was part of the Seven Years' War between Prussia and Austria. Despite Maria Theresa's tenacious efforts to recover Silesia, an armistice in November 1762 ended the conflict, and the Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763) acknowledged Prussia's retention of Silesia.

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