Bolivia's Drug Trade: A Deep-Rooted Problem

Bolivia has become a strategic hub for cocaine trafficking. In January 2024, 8.7 tons of cocaine were seized in the department of Oruro, in the Altiplano region of western Bolivia, in what was described by the authorities as the largest anti-drug operation in Bolivian history. The country is the third-largest grower of coca in the world, and its geography has made it an asset for traffickers. Bolivia's drug trade is embedded in local cultural norms and values, and the country has avoided much of the violence associated with drug production in other Latin American countries. However, there are concerns that violence is increasing in Bolivia as the drug trade evolves.

Bolivia's geographical position makes it a strategic hub for cocaine trafficking

Bolivia's position in South America's illegal narcotics trade is further enhanced by its own production of cocaine. The country has traditionally been a producer of coca leaves, which are processed into cocaine. While Bolivia was once known only for coca leaf cultivation, it has recently become a significant manufacturer of cocaine. The reorganization of drug trafficking routes has turned the country's geography into an asset for traffickers, making Bolivia a strategic hub for the illicit drug trade.

Bolivia's history with coca leaf cultivation dates back centuries, with small farmers in the Chapare and Yungas regions primarily growing the crop. In the 1980s, Bolivia's coca production soared as farmers rushed to take advantage of rising prices, a collapsing economy, and soaring unemployment. The crop's quick economic return, light weight, high yield of four crops per year, and the abundance of US dollars in the trade made it extremely attractive to farmers. This led to a massive expansion of coca production and the number of growers in the country.

The Bolivian government has made efforts to eradicate coca cultivation, starting with a five-year program in 1983 to reduce coca production. However, these attempts have had limited success and faced strong opposition from peasants. Despite some reductions in coca cultivation areas over the years, Bolivia continues to be a significant coca grower and a key player in the regional drug trade due to its geographical position and the ongoing production and trafficking of cocaine.

The country's location and involvement in the drug trade have had significant implications for its society and economy. Drug trafficking has brought corruption to various sectors, including the military, security services, and the judicial system. Additionally, the drug trade has contributed to the predominance of the US dollar in the economy, fueling inflation and distorting labor markets. Bolivia's position as a drug transit and production nation has also led to concerns about a potential increase in violence, as warned by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).

The country is the third-largest coca bush grower in the world

Bolivia is the third-largest coca bush grower in the world. In 2010, the area under coca bush cultivation was estimated at 31,000 hectares, concentrated mainly in the Yungas and Chapare areas. The coca plant is a tea-like shrub that has been cultivated in the medium-altitude parts of the Bolivian Andes since at least the Inca era.

In recent years, Bolivia has become one of the world's leading cocaine manufacturers. In 2009, the UN Office of Drug Control estimated that 35,148 of 54,608 metric tons produced in Bolivia was sold in unauthorized markets dominated by the cocaine trade, most of it from coca production in the Chapare. In 2023, almost 33 tons of cocaine were seized, and more than 1,800 factories have been destroyed since 2020. However, these figures reveal an alarming reality for Bolivia: the amount of drugs in circulation is skyrocketing.

The Bolivian government has made efforts to eradicate coca cultivation and reduce its role in the drug trade. In 1983, Bolivia committed to a five-year program to reduce coca production and created the Coca Eradication Directorate under the Ministry of Agriculture, Campesino Affairs, and Livestock Affairs. In 2011, the government set a new record by eradicating 10,051 hectares of coca cultivation in the first eleven months. In August 2015, the UN announced that coca cultivation was at its lowest in 13 years.

Despite these efforts, Bolivia remains a significant producer and supplier of coca leaves and cocaine. In 2022, the UN reported that Bolivia had 29,900 hectares of coca crop, of which only 22,000 were legal. The country's geography has made it a strategic hub for cocaine trafficking, with neighbouring countries like Brazil, Peru, and Argentina being major consumers or producers of illegal drugs.

The cultivation of coca bush in Bolivia has also decreased in recent years. According to the 2012 national coca monitoring survey, the area under cultivation stood at around 25,300 hectares, a 7% decrease from the previous year. This downward trend continued in 2011, with a 12% decrease in cultivation compared to 2010.

Bolivia's drug trade is embedded in local cultural norms and values

Bolivia is a major producer of coca leaves, which are used in the production of cocaine. In the 1980s, Bolivia was the second-largest grower of coca in the world, supplying approximately 15% of the US cocaine market.

The drug trade in Bolivia is embedded in local cultural norms and values, particularly in the lowland Chapare region, where much of the population is involved in the production and trade of coca leaves. For the Chapareños, sociality is based on entanglements of debt and obligations. Reciprocity, writes anthropologist Catherine Allen, is the “pump at the heart of Andean life,” with women bearing most of the responsibility for community and kinship relationships. Anyone who gets ahead is forced to reinvest their surplus into the community. These customs, which infuse coca growers' involvement in illicit activities, often explicitly exclude outsiders while successfully coexisting with market-oriented strategies.

Coca growers' unions became the local government in the Chapare region, controlling land tenure and administering justice. The unions only admitted people they already knew—usually extended kinship networks of neighbours from the highlands and old friends. Disagreements, including robbery, boundary disputes, or outstanding debts are resolved at community-wide union meetings. Being expelled from the union means losing your land, family, and neighbours—it is akin to becoming an orphan, according to Chapare coca farmer Alfredo Higuera.

The drug trade in Bolivia is also relatively peaceful compared to other Latin American countries. A retired police official insisted, "We do not see extreme violence over the control of territory here. Occasionally we see the settling of scores, but they are only ever isolated incidents." This is because the trade is embedded in local cultural norms and values. For Bolivians in tropical agricultural zones, involvement in the cocaine trade is a mundane affair, a commonsense way to make money in a place where turning a profit from farming is difficult. "We all live from this," explained Umberto, a coca farmer in the Chapare region. "We protect it...It generates work."

The Bolivian government's harm-reduction approach has kept drug-related violence low

Bolivia has long been a hub for the coca crop, which is used in the production of cocaine. In the 1980s, Bolivia was the second-largest grower of coca in the world, supplying approximately 15% of the US cocaine market.

The country's government has engaged in negotiations with the United States as a result of the industry's negative side effects, which include trafficking and corruption. In 1983, Bolivia committed to a five-year program to reduce coca production and created the Coca Eradication Directorate under the Ministry of Agriculture, Campesino Affairs, and Livestock Affairs. Despite these efforts, the coca industry continued to thrive, and in the late 1980s, Bolivia became increasingly aware of the threat posed by drug traffickers.

In 2005, Evo Morales, the president of the National Coca Grower Confederation, was elected as the country's first indigenous president. He promised to change the US-funded "drug war" that had led to repeated human rights violations. The new policy, which incorporated harm reduction principles and respect for human rights, recognized the traditional use and cultural importance of the coca leaf. It relied on vigorous local organizations to implement a community-based program called social control.

The social control program has registered 50,000 farmers who are allowed to cultivate limited quantities of coca to supply traditional users, and it has helped them gain secure title to their land. This registration is combined with satellite surveillance to ensure that farmers do not exceed the legal limits. While the program has not completely eliminated coca diversion to the drug trade, it has successfully reduced violence in coca-growing communities, ensured small farmers a subsistence income, and increased sovereignty.

The Bolivian government's harm-reduction approach has been effective in keeping drug-related violence low. By focusing on community-based programs and respecting human rights, the government has been able to reduce violence and improve economic conditions for small farmers. This approach may offer valuable lessons for other drug-producing countries, particularly those with strong socio-political organizations and close-knit communities that share cultural values.

Bolivia's drug trade is dominated by criminal clans, not large syndicates

Bolivia has long been a producer of coca leaves, which are used in the production of cocaine. In recent years, Bolivia has become one of the world's leading cocaine manufacturers. The country's geography has made it a strategic hub for cocaine trafficking, with Bolivia now sitting alongside Brazil, the second-biggest consumer of illegal drugs in the world. Bolivia's drug trade is dominated by criminal clans, rather than large syndicates, with these clans engaging in a wide variety of criminal activities, including drug trafficking and contraband.

Bolivia's organized crime groups are often based on family ties and tend to work up to the level of coca base production. The most sophisticated of these clans can put together up to 1000 kilograms of coca base, which is then delivered to Brazilian organized crime syndicates. This coca base, or cocaine paste, feeds the "basuco" market, a highly addictive form of crack cocaine that is smoked. Bolivia is the major supplier of basuco to Brazil and, to a lesser extent, Argentina, which are both struggling to contain the growing number of users.

The lack of violence between Bolivia's criminal clans can partly be explained by the strength of the country's indigenous culture, which abhors violence and seeks communal solutions to problems. However, there is evidence of rising drug-related killings in Santa Cruz, which may be linked to transnational organized crime (TOC). The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has warned that an increase in violence is inevitable if Bolivia maintains its position as a drug transit and production nation.

In recent years, there have been efforts by the Bolivian government to combat drug trafficking and reduce coca production. In 2013, the governor of Santa Cruz called a state of emergency to contain a crime wave in the city, blaming the violence on the drug trade. And in 2023, almost 33 tons of cocaine were seized by the special anti-narcotics force (FELCN), and more than 1,800 factories have been destroyed since 2020. However, these efforts have had limited success, as the amount of drugs in circulation continues to increase.

The longer Bolivia remains a drug production and transit nation, the more likely it is that its organized crime groups will evolve into sophisticated transnational organizations. Without significant investment in the fight against drug trafficking and TOC, the prognosis for Bolivia is pessimistic.

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