Lexi Webster
Australian Indigenous languages are a unique group of languages with no accepted genetic connections to non-Australian languages. At the time of the British invasion, there were around 250 First Languages spoken in Australia, with numerous dialects within each language group. Today, there are more than 250 Indigenous languages, including around 800 dialects. However, the precise number is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 250 to 363. Many Indigenous languages have become extinct due to colonisation, and in 2020, 90% of the remaining languages were considered endangered. Despite these challenges, there are ongoing efforts to preserve and revive Indigenous languages in Australia, including government programs and community initiatives.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of Indigenous Languages | 200-300 |
| Number of dialects | 800 |
| Number of languages at the time of British invasion | 250 |
| Number of languages in daily use at the start of the 21st century | fewer than 150 |
| Number of languages still spoken and transmitted to children in 2020 | 100+ |
| Number of languages with over 1,000 speakers in 2020 | 13 |
| Number of languages with over 1,000 speakers in 2021 | 19 |
| Number of people who spoke an Indigenous language at home in 2001 | 49,764 |
| Number of people who spoke an Indigenous language at home in 2016 | 63,754 |
| Number of people who spoke an Indigenous language at home in 2021 | 76,978 |
| Proportion of Indigenous people who spoke an Indigenous language at home in 2001 | 12.1% |
| Proportion of Indigenous people who spoke an Indigenous language at home in 2021 | 9.5% |
| Number of people who spoke an Indigenous language in 2016 | 8,625 |
| Number of people who spoke an Indigenous language in 2021 | 4,197 |
| Number of Indigenous language centres in Australia | 22 |
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What You'll Learn
Language endangerment and extinction
Australia has one of the worst records in the world when it comes to language loss. Many Indigenous Australian languages were almost immediately wiped out within decades of colonisation. The Aboriginal Tasmanians, for instance, suffered a precipitous linguistic ethnocide. Tasmania had been separated from mainland Australia for around 12,000 years, and the Indigenous Tasmanians who lived there spoke twelve languages unrelated to those on the mainland.
In the late 18th century, there were over 250 distinct First Nations Peoples social groupings in Australia, and a similar number of languages or varieties. By 1990, it was estimated that only 90 languages had survived, and of those, 70% were judged to be 'severely endangered' by 2001. Only 17 were spoken by all age groups, which is considered a definition of a 'strong' language.
At the start of the 21st century, fewer than 150 Aboriginal languages remained in daily use, with the majority being highly endangered. In 2020, 90% of the barely more than 100 languages still spoken were considered endangered. Only thirteen languages were still being transmitted to children.
The loss of Indigenous languages in Australia is largely due to the traumatic experiences and brutal colonial policies inflicted on First Nations people. People were punished for speaking their language, and children were placed in dormitories and forbidden from speaking their mother tongue at school or in Christian missions. This intergenerational trauma impacted the ability of First Nations people to pass on their languages to the next generation.
In recent decades, there have been attempts to revive Indigenous languages in Australia. However, significant challenges exist in the dominant English language culture of Australia. For example, the Kaurna language, spoken by the Kaurna people of the Adelaide plains, has been the subject of a concerted revival movement since the 1980s. Bilingual education is being used successfully in some communities, and there are now thousands of students studying an Aboriginal language at school in Australia.
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Language revival and maintenance efforts
To address this issue, various initiatives and programs have been implemented to support the revitalisation and maintenance of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages. One approach is through education, both within schools and through alternative avenues such as the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). Bilingual education is considered the most effective method, and efforts are being made to embed local Indigenous languages into the teaching of digital technologies.
Additionally, there is a focus on developing innovative teaching and learning platforms through existing networks, such as education bodies and the ILA program. The Australian government provides operational funding to a network of 22 Indigenous Language Centres, recognising the importance of these languages. These centres work to maintain, preserve, and promote the diversity of Indigenous languages.
Online projects and digital initiatives also play a crucial role in language revival. The Australian Indigenous Languages Online Project, led by AIATSIS, provides online access to the Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Languages Collection, inscribed on the UNESCO Memory of the World Register in 2009. Digitisation projects, such as the Daisy Bates Online collection, provide valuable resources for researchers.
Dictionaries and language resources are another popular approach to language preservation and revival. The Alice Springs-based Aboriginal publisher IAD Press created a Picture Dictionary series with English translations, illustrations, and a pronunciation guide. Websites like "50 Words" showcase the diversity of Aboriginal languages.
Language activists, linguists, teachers, and Indigenous communities are all working together to develop creative methods for revitalising endangered languages. One example is the revival of the Kaurna language in South Australia, where researchers had to create new words for modern inventions, such as 'muka karndo' (lightning brain) for 'computer'.
These efforts are crucial to ensuring the survival of Indigenous languages in Australia, and by extension, the survival of the cultures and communities that depend on them.
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The impact of colonisation
The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, with estimates ranging from a minimum of 250 languages (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intelligible varieties) to possibly 363. Alongside these languages, there are also around 800 dialects. Each language is specific to a particular place and people.
The suppression of Indigenous languages was a direct result of colonisation and government policies. Many languages became extinct as the encroachment of colonial society broke up Indigenous cultures. For some of these languages, few records exist for vocabulary and grammar. This loss of language also impacted the education of Indigenous children, as we know that educational outcomes improve when children are taught in their first language.
In addition to the loss of language, Indigenous Australians also suffered other injustices during colonisation. They were evicted from their traditional territories and relocated to reserves and missions. Sacred sites were destroyed, and Indigenous men and women were forced to work for the colonists, with the Aboriginal cattle industry being built on the labour of Aboriginal men, and Aboriginal women forced into domestic work. Indigenous women and girls also suffered sexual abuse and exploitation, and the introduction of new diseases caused widespread venereal disease in Indigenous communities.
Despite these challenges, there have been attempts in recent decades to revive Indigenous languages. Bilingual education is being used successfully in some communities, and there are currently 22 Indigenous language centres around Australia working to maintain, preserve, and promote the diversity of their languages.
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Indigenous languages in education
Indigenous languages in Australia number in the hundreds, with estimates ranging from a minimum of 250 to possibly 363 languages, including around 800 dialects. Most of these languages belong to the Pama–Nyungan family, while the remainder are classified as "non-Pama–Nyungan".
The status and knowledge of these languages vary greatly. Many languages became extinct with settlement as colonial society broke up Indigenous cultures. In 1990, it was estimated that 90 languages survived out of the 250 once spoken, with 70% of these judged as "severely endangered" by 2001. In 2020, 90% of the barely more than 100 languages still spoken were considered endangered, and only 13 languages were being transmitted to children.
Despite these challenges, there have been attempts to revive Indigenous languages in Australia. One example is the Kaurna language, spoken by the Kaurna people of the Adelaide plains, which has been the subject of a revival movement since the 1980s. Another initiative is the National Indigenous Languages Survey, a regular Australia-wide survey of the status of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages conducted in 2005, 2014, and 2019.
Indigenous language education is also being incorporated into schools. In 2008, over 16,000 Indigenous students and 13,000 non-Indigenous students in 260 Australian schools participated in an Indigenous language program, with more than 80 different Indigenous languages being taught. There are currently 60 Aboriginal people undertaking language teacher training, and Aboriginal Languages Implementation Guidelines are available for schools to help ensure that future generations of young Western Australians will continue to learn Aboriginal languages.
Educational outcomes improve when children are taught in their first language, especially in the early years. Bilingual education is being used successfully in some communities, and some Indigenous communities and linguists support learning programmes for language revival or "post-vernacular maintenance".
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Indigenous languages and dialects by region
Australia has more than 250 Indigenous languages and around 800 dialects. The precise number of Indigenous languages is uncertain, with estimates ranging from a minimum of 250 to possibly 363. Many languages became extinct due to colonisation, and in 2020, 90% of the just over 100 languages still spoken were considered endangered.
In the Torres Strait, three main languages are spoken: Kala Lagaw Ya on the western islands of Mabuiag and Badu, Meriam Mir on the eastern islands of Erub (Darnley Island), Ugar (Stephen Island), and Mer (Murray Island), and Yumplatok, also known as Torres Strait Creole, in the Torres Strait and some parts of Cape York Peninsula. As of 2006, there were an estimated 200 speakers of Meriam Mir.
In the huge Western Desert, dialects of a single language are spoken.
In Arnhem Land, many different languages are spoken over a small area. Yolŋu languages from north-east Arnhem Land are currently being learned by children, and bilingual education is being used successfully in some communities.
Warlpiri is a central Australian language spoken primarily in the communities of Yuendumu, Lajamanu, Nyirripi, and Willowra. The 2006 Census recorded just over 2500 speakers, making it one of the most spoken languages in Australia.
The Kaurna language, spoken by the Kaurna people of the Adelaide plains, has been the subject of a revival movement since the 1980s, coordinated by Kaurna Warra Pintyanthi.
The National Indigenous Languages Survey, conducted in 2005, 2014, and 2019, found that there were 47 languages and 42,300 speakers, with 11 languages having only approximately 100 speakers, and 11 languages having over 1,000 speakers.
The New South Wales Aboriginal Languages Act 2017 established a board to advise on the preservation of Aboriginal languages, known as the Aboriginal Languages Trust.
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Frequently asked questions
It is estimated that there were between 250 and 363 distinct Indigenous languages spoken in Australia and on some nearby islands before colonisation. There were also around 800 dialects.
It is estimated that there are between 120 and 150 Indigenous languages still spoken in Australia today. However, the majority of these are considered endangered.
In the 2021 Census, 76,978 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people reported speaking an Indigenous language at home. However, this number has decreased over the past 20 years, from 12.1% in 2001 to 9.5% in 2021.
Some of the most widely spoken Indigenous languages today include Warlpiri, Murrinh-patha, Tiwi, and Djambarrpuyngu.
