Invasion Of Afghanistan: A History Of Foreign Interference

Afghanistan has been invaded by numerous countries throughout history, owing to its strategic location at the crossroads of Central and South Asia. Invaders have included the Maurya Empire, the ancient Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great, the Rashidun Caliphate, the Mongol Empire led by Genghis Khan, the Timurid Empire, the Mughal Empire, various Persian Empires, the British Empire, the Soviet Union, and most recently, the United States.

Afghanistan's location has made it a crucial gateway between Asia and Europe, making it an attractive target for conquest. The country's complex geography, with its mountainous terrain, has also presented a formidable challenge to invaders throughout history.

The US invasion of Afghanistan

Afghanistan is a landlocked country in Central and South Asia. Its history is marked by invasions and conquests, with the most recent one being by the United States and its allies in 2001.

On October 7, 2001, the US and its allies, including the UK, Canada, France, Germany, and Australia, launched airstrikes on Afghanistan, targeting Taliban and Al-Qaeda bases. The invasion was also supported by anti-Taliban groups within Afghanistan, such as the Northern Alliance. Within two months, the Taliban regime was toppled, and a new interim government was formed under Hamid Karzai.

The invasion was swift, with the Taliban losing control of major cities like Mazar-i-Sharif, Herat, Kabul, and Jalalabad within weeks. By December 2001, the Taliban leadership had fled to Pakistan, and the new Afghan government, supported by US and NATO forces, began to establish control over the country.

However, the US invasion did not capture Osama bin Laden, who escaped across the border to Pakistan. The focus of the US military then shifted to Iraq, and the Taliban regrouped and launched an insurgency against the Afghan government and NATO forces. This insurgency led to a protracted war that lasted for nearly two decades and resulted in heavy casualties on all sides.

In 2020, the US negotiated a peace deal with the Taliban, agreeing to withdraw its troops from Afghanistan. The Taliban took advantage of the withdrawal and rapidly seized control of the country in August 2021, leading to the collapse of the Afghan government.

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

The invasion was prompted by a series of events that began with the 1973 coup led by former Afghan Prime Minister Mohammed Daoud against King Zahir. Daoud's coup was dependent on pro-Soviet military and political factions, and he enjoyed the support of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), founded in 1965 upon Marxist ideology and allegiance to Moscow. However, Daoud attempted to govern Afghanistan's Islamic tribal regions while also struggling to reconcile the PDPA split between the Parchamists, led by Babrak Karmal, and the "Khalqis" led by Noor Taraki.

In April 1978, soldiers aligned with Taraki's "Khalq" faction assaulted the presidential palace, executing Daoud and his family. Taraki became the Prime Minister, and Karmal became Deputy Prime Minister in an attempt to end the PDPA's divisions. This Communist revolution alarmed the Carter administration, which recognized that Taraki would undo Daoud's attempt to steer Afghanistan away from Moscow. The U.S. debated whether to cut ties with Afghanistan or recognize Taraki in the hopes of containing Soviet influence. Ultimately, the U.S. recognized the new government and named Adolph Dubs as its Ambassador to Afghanistan.

However, internal Afghan politics continued to complicate U.S. and Soviet jockeying. In the summer of 1979, Hafizullah Amin, a longtime ally of Taraki, received word of a plot by Karmal to overthrow the Taraki regime. Amin took the opportunity to purge and execute many Parchamists and consolidate his power. This internal strife damaged the Kabul Government's major national program to bring the Communist revolution to the Islamic tribal areas beyond Kabul, sparking armed revolt throughout the country.

In response, Amin and Taraki traveled to Moscow to sign a friendship treaty that included a provision for direct Soviet military assistance if the Islamic insurgency threatened the regime. By mid-1979, Moscow was searching for replacements for Taraki and Amin, dispatching combat troops to Bagram Air Base outside of Kabul. This move prompted the Carter administration to begin supplying non-lethal aid to Afghan mujahedeen, or Islamic insurgents.

In October 1979, forces loyal to Amin executed Taraki, infuriating Moscow, which began amassing combat units along its border. On Christmas Eve, Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan, killing Amin and installing Karmal as the Soviet's puppet head of government. The invasion triggered a brutal, decade-long civil war in Afghanistan and contributed significantly to the USSR's later collapse.

The British invasion of Afghanistan

Afghanistan, a landlocked country in South Asia, has been invaded by several empires throughout history. The British Empire invaded Afghanistan three times: in 1838, 1878, and 1919.

The First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842)

The First Anglo-Afghan War was fought between the British Empire and the Emirate of Kabul from 1838 to 1842. The British initially successfully invaded the country, taking sides in a succession dispute between Emir Dost Mohammad Khan and former King Shah Shujah. The British reinstalled Shah Shujah upon occupying Kabul in August 1839. The main British Indian force occupied Kabul and endured harsh winters. The force and its camp followers were almost completely massacred during the 1842 retreat from Kabul.

The British then sent an Army of Retribution to Kabul to avenge the destruction of the previous forces. After recovering prisoners, they left Afghanistan by the end of the year. Dost Mohammad returned from exile in India to resume his rule.

The Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880)

The Second Anglo-Afghan War was a military conflict fought between the British Raj and the Emirate of Afghanistan from 1878 to 1880, when the latter was ruled by Sher Ali Khan of the Barakzai dynasty, the son of former Emir Dost Mohammad Khan. The war was part of the Great Game between the British and Russian empires.

The war was split into two campaigns. The first began in November 1878 with the British invasion of Afghanistan from India. The British were quickly victorious and forced the Amir, Sher Ali Khan, to flee. Ali's successor, Mohammad Yaqub Khan, immediately sued for peace, and the Treaty of Gandamak was signed on May 26, 1879. The British sent an envoy and mission led by Sir Louis Cavagnari to Kabul, but on September 3, this mission was massacred, and the conflict was reignited by Ayub Khan, which led to the abdication of his brother Yaqub.

The second campaign ended in September 1880 when the British decisively defeated Ayub Khan outside Kandahar. Abdur Rahman Khan, who had been an opponent of the British, was invited to be the new Amir and accepted. He ratified and confirmed the Gandamak treaty once more. Having created the buffer they wanted between the Raj and the Russian Empire, British and Indian soldiers then withdrew from Afghanistan.

The Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)

With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, there was widespread support in Afghanistan for the Ottoman Empire against the British. However, the ruler of Afghanistan at the time, Ḥabībullāh Khan, was able to maintain a policy of non-involvement throughout the war. When Ḥabībullāh was assassinated in 1919, his son Amānullāh Khan took possession of the throne. At that time, Britain still exercised significant influence on Afghan affairs. In his coronation address, Amānullāh declared total independence from Great Britain, launching the inconclusive Third Anglo-Afghan War in May 1919.

The Mongol invasion of Afghanistan

Afghanistan has been invaded by numerous countries throughout its history, including the Mongol Empire, led by Genghis Khan, in the 13th century.

In September 1221, the Battle of Parwan took place between the Mongols and the forces of Sultan Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu of the Khwarazmian Empire. Despite Genghis Khan sending an army of 30,000 troops, Jalal ad-Din's tactics led to the destruction of the Mongol army in a two-day battle. This defeat caused several cities, including Merv and Herat, to rebel against Mongol rule. In response, Genghis Khan intercepted Jalal ad-Din's army as they were preparing to cross the Indus River and defeated them, but Jalal ad-Din survived and eventually established a power base in Punjab and Sindh.

After the Battle of Parwan, Genghis Khan laid siege to Bamiyan and ordered that no living being be spared. Bamiyan was utterly destroyed, and Genghis Khan then advanced on Ghazni, winning a great victory over Jalal ad-Din, who fell back toward the Indus River.

Following Genghis Khan's death in 1227, his empire fell apart, and local chiefs in Afghanistan succeeded in establishing independent principalities. However, most parts of Afghanistan remained under Mongol rule as part of the Ilkhanate and the Turko-Mongol Chagatai Khanate.

In the 14th century, Timur (Tamerlane), a leader from a Turko-Mongol tribe, conquered a large part of Afghanistan, causing great devastation and the deaths of millions.

Today, Afghanistan is home to around 1 million Hazara Mongols, who claim to be descendants of Genghis Khan and his forces.

The Greek invasion of Afghanistan

Nearly a hundred years after Alexander's death, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Indo-Greek Kingdom were founded in Afghanistan by descendants of Greeks who had settled in the area. The Greek soldiers in Bactria declared independence, defeated Seleucid armies sent to reconquer them, and founded the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, which lasted for more than three centuries in Afghanistan. This Greek kingdom, called Bactria, carried on Greek culture while completely cut off from Europe. The city of Ai-Khanoum, excavated in the 1970s, revealed a complete Greek city with an acropolis, amphitheater, temples, and numerous statues.

The Greek legacy in Afghanistan is strong due to the beauty of Greek art. The legacy of Greek art reached Afghanistan by sea and over land. The culture of Greece met with the local culture of Bactria, forming a fusion between the two. Greek techniques of stone and metalworking began to be used in India, and Greek coins began to appear in the bazaars.

The last Greek Kingdom in Afghanistan was conquered by the Kushan invaders in the first century AD, but the Greek language continued to be used by the Kushans in their coinage for several centuries.

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