The Enduring Conflict In Afghanistan: A Historical Perspective

Afghanistan has been at war for decades, with the most recent conflict lasting from 2001 to 2021. The war in Afghanistan was an armed conflict that began when an international military coalition led by the United States launched an invasion of Afghanistan, declaring Operation Enduring Freedom as part of the war on terror. The conflict officially ended with the 2021 Taliban offensive, which overthrew the Islamic Republic and re-established the Islamic Emirate.

The war in Afghanistan was the longest war in US military history, surpassing the length of the Vietnam War. It was triggered by the September 11 attacks and consisted of three phases. The first phase was to topple the Taliban, which was brief and lasted just two months. The second phase, from 2002 until 2008, was marked by a US strategy of defeating the Taliban and rebuilding core institutions of the Afghan state. The third phase, a turn to classic counterinsurgency doctrine, began in 2008 and accelerated with the decision to temporarily increase US troop presence in Afghanistan.

The war in Afghanistan has a long history of foreign invasion and internal strife. The land has been conquered by foreign powers such as Babylonia and Macedonia, and it was not until the 1700s that the area was united as a single country. Afghanistan has also experienced British-Afghan wars, Soviet invasions, and civil wars.

The recent war in Afghanistan resulted in significant casualties, with an estimated 176,000-212,000+ people killed, including 46,319 civilians. The war also caused mass displacement, with 2.6 million Afghans remaining refugees and another 4 million internally displaced by the time the Taliban returned to power in 2021.

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979

On Christmas Eve 1979, the Soviet Union began its invasion of Afghanistan, its southern neighbour in Central Asia. The invasion started with an airlift of elite troops into principal Afghan cities, followed by the deployment of motorized divisions across the border. Within days, the Soviets had control of Kabul and large portions of the country.

The invasion was triggered by a Moscow-backed coup to install a new leader, Babrak Karmal, after the KGB poisoned the Afghan president and his ministers. The Soviets wanted to shore up the newly established pro-Soviet regime in Kabul and prevent Afghan leaders from turning to the United States for help. The invasion also upheld the 'Brezhnev Doctrine', which stated that once a country became socialist, Moscow would never permit it to return to the capitalist camp.

The Soviets faced fierce resistance from the Mujahideen rebels, who employed guerrilla tactics. The war resulted in the deaths of approximately 3,000,000 Afghans, while millions more fled the country as refugees. The conflict also caused significant damage to Afghanistan, with villages being destroyed and millions of landmines planted.

The Soviet Union's economy and national prestige suffered a severe blow due to the war, which contributed significantly to the USSR's collapse and breakup. The last Soviet soldier crossed back into the USSR from Afghanistan on 15 February 1989, ending a decade-long attempt to subdue the Afghan civil war.

The rise of the Taliban in the 1990s

The Taliban, an ultraconservative political and religious faction, emerged in the early 1990s in northern Pakistan following the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. The movement was founded by Afghan mujahideen, or Islamic guerrilla fighters, who had resisted the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. The Taliban's name, which means "students" in Pashto, reflects the fact that its members were students in Pakistani religious seminaries, or madrassas, mostly funded by Saudi Arabia.

The Taliban's promise to restore peace and security and enforce their own austere version of Sharia, or Islamic law, once in power, resonated with Afghans, who were weary of the mujahideen's excesses and infighting after the Soviets were driven out. The Taliban's rise was also portrayed as creating Islamic order against crime and chaos.

In September 1994, the Taliban, with military support from Pakistan and financial support from Saudi Arabia, seized control of Kandahar, a city in southwestern Afghanistan that had traditionally been the centre of Pashtun power and culture. Within months, the Taliban had expanded its influence, capturing the western city of Herat in September 1995 and the Afghan capital, Kabul, in September 1996. By 1998, the Taliban controlled almost 90% of Afghanistan.

The Taliban's rule was marked by a strict interpretation of Sharia law, which was implemented alongside a conservative Pashtun social code. The regime's policies included the near-total exclusion of women from public life, the systematic destruction of non-Islamic artistic relics, and the implementation of harsh criminal punishments. The Taliban's harsh treatment of women was internationally condemned, and the group was also accused of various human rights and cultural abuses.

The Taliban's rise to power was facilitated by support from Pakistan, which sought to establish a regime in Afghanistan that would be favourable to Pakistan. Elements of the Pakistani government and military, particularly the Pakistani intelligence agency, the ISI, provided the Taliban with military, financial, and logistical support.

The Taliban's rule ended in 2001 following the U.S.-British invasion of Afghanistan in the wake of the September11 attacks. The Taliban was ousted from power, and an interim government was established, with Hamid Karzai as leader.

The US-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001

The Taliban regime, which had seized around 85% of Afghanistan's territory, refused to hand over Osama bin Laden, the al-Qaeda leader who had masterminded the attacks. The invasion, known as Operation Enduring Freedom, began on October 7, 2001, with US and UK forces carrying out air strikes on 31 targets across Afghanistan. The Northern Alliance, a coalition of anti-Taliban groups, also played a key role in the invasion, with US special forces liaising with and fighting alongside them.

The invasion made rapid progress, with the coalition capturing Kabul on November 13 and toppling the Taliban by December 17. However, most members of al-Qaeda and the Taliban were not captured, and Osama bin Laden escaped into neighbouring Pakistan. The invasion was followed by a 20-year-long war in Afghanistan, which became the longest war in US military history.

The resurgence of the Taliban in 2005

The Taliban's resurgence was also facilitated by the Afghan government's political infighting and weakness at different levels. The Taliban expanded their governance in the areas under their control, attempting to build local-level legitimacy. Their governance strategy rested on the provision of justice, which was often viewed as less corrupt than the courts of the Afghan government.

The Taliban's resurgence was also due to the Afghan security forces' lack of air power, reconnaissance, and training. The Taliban also had the advantage of greater financial resources, with their governance strategy in the areas under their control bringing in tens of millions of dollars annually.

The withdrawal of US troops in 2021

The withdrawal of US troops from Afghanistan in 2021 marked the end of America's longest war. The US had been at war in Afghanistan since 2001, following the September 11 attacks. The conflict was between the US-led coalition forces and the Taliban, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 176,000-212,000+ people, including 46,319 civilians.

The US withdrawal from Afghanistan began under the Trump administration, which signed a peace deal with the Taliban in February 2020. The deal stipulated the withdrawal of all US troops from Afghanistan by May 2021. However, the Afghan government was not a party to the deal and rejected its terms.

In February 2021, President Joe Biden announced that the US would proceed with the troop withdrawal but would delay the timeline by a few months. The last of the US troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan by August 30, 2021.

The withdrawal of US troops from Afghanistan was not without controversy. Republican and some Democratic leaders criticized the Biden administration for misjudging the strength and resolve of both the Taliban and Afghan government forces. There were also concerns about the thousands of Afghans who had worked with US forces and were now at risk of retaliation from the Taliban. Despite these concerns, Biden reiterated his commitment to a complete withdrawal by August 31, 2021.

The withdrawal of US troops from Afghanistan had both supporters and critics. A survey conducted in August 2021 found that 54% of Americans supported the decision to withdraw, while 42% opposed it. There was a sharp partisan divide on this issue, with 70% of Democrats in favor and only 34% of Republicans.

The withdrawal of US troops from Afghanistan also had international repercussions. A spring 2022 survey of 18 countries found that a median of 52% viewed the US troop withdrawal as the right decision, while a median of 39% disagreed. However, a median of 56% believed that the withdrawal was not handled well.

The withdrawal of US troops from Afghanistan had far-reaching consequences. The Taliban regained control of the country, leading to a refugee crisis as many Afghans fled. There were also fears that Afghanistan could become a safe haven for terrorists. These fears were heightened by the presence of al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri, who was discovered and killed in a US drone strike in Kabul in July 2022.

Frequently asked questions