The Impact Of Human Activity On Bahrain's Environment

Bahrain is a small island country in West Asia, situated on the Persian Gulf. It has a long history of human settlement, dating back to the Bronze Age, and was famed for its pearl fisheries in ancient times. Today, Bahrain is a high-income economy, with a diverse range of sectors including banking, tourism, and petroleum.

However, Bahrain has also been the site of numerous human rights abuses, with a particular focus on the marginalisation of the native Shia Muslim population. Torture, forced disappearances, and the destruction of Shia mosques have all been reported. The Bahraini government has also been accused of targeting Shia clerics and arresting human rights defenders from Shia backgrounds.

In addition, Bahrain has a growing problem of stateless people, known as Bedoon, who are often denied basic rights such as the ability to hold legal residency, travel abroad, or own land.

The country has also faced criticism for its treatment of migrant workers, who make up a large proportion of the workforce. While some measures have been introduced to protect migrant workers' rights, these are often not enforced, and migrant workers continue to face issues such as dismissal, reduced wages, and poor living conditions.

Overall, while Bahrain has developed economically, it continues to face significant challenges when it comes to protecting the human rights of its citizens and residents.

The discovery of oil in Bahrain

The Discovery of Oil:

The Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO), established in 1929, discovered oil in Bahrain, making it the first place on the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf to find oil. On October 16, 1931, oil first spurted from the well, and on the morning of June 2, 1932, the well began to blow heads of oil.

Impact on Economy:

The discovery of oil had a profound impact on Bahrain's economy, which had previously relied heavily on pearl fisheries. Oil production and processing became a significant source of revenue, and Bahrain developed one of the first post-oil economies in the Persian Gulf.

Oil Production and Exports:

Bahrain's initial oil flow rate was 9,600 barrels per day, reaching 70,000 barrels per day in the 1970s. Over time, the well's production stabilized at about 35,000 barrels per day. In addition to oil, Bahrain also has natural gas reserves.

Recent Discoveries:

In 2018, Bahrain announced a significant shale oil discovery, with an estimated 80 billion barrels of tight oil in place off its west coast. This discovery eclipsed Bahrain's previous proven reserves.

Challenges and Diversification:

Despite its oil wealth, Bahrain has worked to diversify its economy due to fluctuations in oil prices and finite resources. The government has targeted sectors like plastics, fiberglass, chemicals, petrochemicals, and food processing for development.

Environmental Concerns:

With its small land area and heavy reliance on oil, Bahrain faces environmental challenges, including desertification and coastal degradation. The country is exploring Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technology to address these issues.

In summary, the discovery of oil in Bahrain was a pivotal moment, shaping its economy, energy sector, and development strategies. While oil has been a boon, Bahrain has also navigated the challenges of resource management and environmental sustainability.

The country's human rights record

Bahrain's human rights record has been described as "dismal" by Human Rights Watch, with the situation not improving since 2010. The country's treatment of its Shia Muslim population has been particularly criticised, with the Shia majority facing discrimination and marginalisation at the hands of the ruling Sunni Al Khalifa royal family.

The Bahraini government has been accused of using torture and forced disappearances, with the 2011 crackdown on Arab Spring protesters bringing further human rights complaints. The Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry was established in 2011 to assess the incidents that occurred during the period of unrest, and confirmed that there were some incidents of physical and psychological abuse on detainees. However, the report was criticised for not disclosing the names of individual perpetrators of abuses.

In addition, Bahrain has a growing problem of stateless people, known as Bedoon, who are denied the right to hold legal residency, travel abroad, buy houses, hold government jobs, own land, start a business, borrow loans, or send their children to public schools. They can also be deported at any time, and hundreds have been deported to Iran since the 1980s.

Bahrain has also been criticised for its treatment of journalists and activists, with the media under tight official control. The government has been accused of using legislation to detain or jail critical journalists and online activists, and of targeting the family members of prominent Bahraini activist Sayed al-Wadaei in retaliation for his human rights work.

The country has also been criticised for its treatment of women and girls, with Bahraini family laws discriminating against women's right to divorce, inherit, and transmit Bahraini nationality to their children on an equal basis to men. In a positive step, Bahrain annulled Article 353 of its Penal Code in 2022, which had allowed rapists to escape prosecution if they married their victims. However, there has been no change to Article 4 of the Law on Bahraini Nationality, under which only men can pass on their nationality to their children.

The country's political reforms

Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is a constitutional monarchy ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family. The country gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1971, with Sheikh Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa as its ruler.

In 1972, Isa issued a decree for the election of a Constituent Assembly to draft and ratify a constitution. The Constituent Assembly consisted of 22 elected delegates, plus the 12 members of the Council of Ministers and 8 members directly appointed by the Emir. The draft constitution enshrined the hereditary leadership of the Al Khalifa family and provided for a unicameral legislature.

In 1973, a general election was held, the only election held under the 1973 Constitution. The National Assembly found itself without legislative powers, but closer to a public forum where petitions were heard and government legislation and policies were presented, debated, and criticized.

In 1974, a proposed security law sparked a political crisis between certain members of the Assembly and the government. The security laws would have granted state authorities extraordinary powers to arrest and detain suspects deemed to threaten national security. A bloc formed within the National Assembly opposed to the security laws and the manner in which the government imposed the law. The crisis came to a head in August 1975 when Isa dissolved the National Assembly, and the country continued to be governed under emergency laws until 2002.

In 1999, Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa became the Emir of Bahrain. He instituted elections for parliament, gave women the right to vote, and released all political prisoners. A referendum on 14–15 February 2001 massively supported the National Action Charter, which was adopted on 14 February 2002.

The first poll was the 2002 Bahraini general election, with MPs serving four‑year terms; the second parliamentary election was the 2006 Bahraini general election. The reforms were based on the National Action Charter, a package of political changes that was endorsed by the people of Bahrain in a popular referendum that saw a 98.4% vote in favour.

The opposition led by Islamic parties boycotted the 2002 election in protest at the bicameral nature of the parliament, because the appointed upper chamber, the Shura Council, has the power to veto legislation. Shura members have responded by pointing out that an appointed upper chamber is a feature of long-established democracies such as the United Kingdom and Canada.

However, the principle behind the Al Wefaq's boycott, that only elected MPs should have the right to legislate, was undermined when, in response to proposed changes to the family law to give women more rights, Al Wefaq stated that no one except religious leaders had the authority to amend the law because MPs could 'misinterpret the word of God.'

Democratisation has greatly enhanced clerical influence, through the ability of religious leaders to deliver the votes of their congregations to candidates. Sheikh Abdullah Al Ghraifi, the deputy head of the Islamic Scholars Council, gave a clear warning of the clerics' intent: "We have at our disposition 150,000 votes that we will forward to the MPs, and I hope that they understand this message clearly."

The near-total dominance of religious parties in elections has given new prominence to clerics within the political system, with the most senior Shia religious leader, Sheikh Isa Qassim, playing an extremely important role. According to one academic paper, "In fact, it seems that few decisions can be arrived at in Al Wefaq – and in the whole country, for that matter – without prior consultation with Isa Qassim, ranging from questions with regard to the planned codification of the personal status law to participate in elections".

In 2005, al Muntada, a grouping of liberal academics, launched "We Have A Right", a campaign to explain to the public why personal freedoms matter and why they need to be defended.

In 2011, Bahrain experienced protests inspired by the regional Arab Spring. The country's ruling Sunni Muslim Al Khalifa royal family has been criticised for violating the human rights of groups including dissidents, political opposition figures, and its majority Shia Muslim population.

In 2018, Bahrain's judiciary dissolved the country's two major opposition parties, al-Wifaq and Wa’ad. The 2018 political isolation laws introduced new punitive consequences in the aftermath of the dissolution of these parties by punishing individual members in perpetuity and excluding them even from non-political spheres of life in Bahrain.

In 2022, Bahrain's upcoming parliamentary and municipal elections, offered little hope for any freer and fairer outcomes than in 2018. Since 2018, rights violations, including arrests and interrogations of Bahrainis for exercising their rights to freedom of expression and association have continued and the government has expanded its application of the political isolation laws.

The Bahraini government should repeal the 2018 political isolation laws, end the deplorable Ministry of Interior practice of denying certificates of good behavior to punish perceived opponents, and restore full legal political and civil rights to all Bahraini citizens.

The country's population and demographics

The population of Bahrain is 1,620,418 as of November 14, 2024, based on elaborations of the United Nations data. Bahrain's population is equivalent to 0.02% of the total world population, and the country ranks 153rd in the list of countries by population. The population density in Bahrain is 2,115 per square km (5,477 people per square mile). The total land area is 760 square km (293 square miles).

Bahrain's population is concentrated in the two principal cities, Manama and Al Muharraq. The median age in Bahrain is 33.2 years.

Bahrain is a polyglot state, both religiously and racially. The indigenous inhabitants of Bahrain are the Shia majority. The Bahraini Sunni Arabs are the most influential ethnic group in Bahrain and hold most government positions. The Sunni Arabs are followed by the Huwala, who are descendants of Sunni Iranians. Bahraini Shia are divided into two main ethnic groups: the Baharna and the Ajam. The Baharna are Arab, while the Ajam are Persian Shias.

Non-nationals make up more than half of the population of Bahrain, with immigrants making up about 52.6% of the overall population. Of these, the vast majority come from South and Southeast Asia.

Bahrain is the dual form of the Arabic word "Bahr" (meaning "sea"), so al-Bahrayn originally means "the two seas". The name has been lexicalised as a feminine proper noun and does not follow the grammatical rules for duals.

Islam is the official religion, forming 74% of the population. Current census data does not differentiate between other religions in Bahrain, but in 2022, the country was approximately 12% Christian and had about 40 Jewish citizens.

Bahrain is the first state in the Gulf to discover oil and to build a refinery. The country has diversified its economy and has developed one of the first post-oil economies in the Persian Gulf, with decades of investment in the banking and tourism sectors. Bahrain is recognised by the World Bank as a high-income economy.

The country's history

Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is an island country in West Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an additional 33 artificial islands, centred on Bahrain Island which makes up around 83% of the country's landmass. Bahrain is situated between Qatar and the northeastern coast of Saudi Arabia, to which it is connected by the King Fahd Causeway.

Bahrain was one of the earliest areas to be influenced by Islam, during the lifetime of Muhammad in 628 AD. Following a period of Arab rule, Bahrain was ruled by the Portuguese Empire from 1521 until 1602, when they were expelled by Shah Abbas the Great of the Safavid Iran. In 1783, the Bani Utbah and allied tribes captured Bahrain from Nasr Al-Madhkur and it has since been ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family, with Ahmed al Fateh as Bahrain's first hakim.

In the late 1800s, following successive treaties with the British, Bahrain became a protectorate of the United Kingdom. In 1971, it declared independence. Formerly an emirate, Bahrain was declared a semi-constitutional monarchy in 2002, and Article 2 of the newly adopted constitution made Sharia a principal source for legislation.

Bahrain's strategic location in the Persian Gulf has brought rule and influence from mostly the Persians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Portuguese, the Arabs, and the British. Bahrain was a central location of the ancient Dilmun civilization. Bahrain's pre-Islamic population consisted of Christian Arabs (mostly Abd al-Qays), Persians (Zoroastrians), Jews, and Aramaic-speaking agriculturalists.

Bahrain was once viewed as a promising model for political reform and democratic transition, but since crushing a popular pro-democracy protest movement in 2011, the monarchy has systematically eliminated a broad range of political rights and civil liberties. The divide between the Shia majority and the Sunni rulers has led to long-running tension, which has sporadically boiled over into civil disobedience.

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