Peru-Bolivia Alliance: Independence Movements And Their Bonds

Peru and Bolivia's paths to independence from Spanish colonial rule were intertwined. Peru was the first viceroyalty in Spanish South America and remained a Royalist stronghold during the wars of independence. Viceroy Abascal y Sousa suppressed uprisings in Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) and annexed it to the viceroyalty, benefiting Lima merchants as trade from the silver-rich region was now directed to the Pacific. Peru thus remained strongly Royalist and participated in the political reforms implemented by the Cortes of Cádiz (1810–1814). However, with the arrival of liberating forces, Peru's independence was declared in 1821, and fighting continued until the final defeat of Royalist armies in 1824. In Bolivia, the struggle for independence started locally and was later given cohesiveness by Simon Bolivar and Antonio Jose de Sucre. The independence movements in both countries were part of the broader Spanish American wars of independence, leading to the dissolution of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru.

Peru's Royalist stance during the independence wars

Peru was a Royalist stronghold during the first decade of the 1800s, fighting those in favor of independence in Peru, Bolivia, Quito, and Chile. As the first viceroyalty in Spanish South America, and long its political and economic center, Peru remained staunchly Royalist during the wars of independence.

The Peruvian War of Independence was a series of military conflicts in Peru from 1809 to 1826 that resulted in the country's independence from the Spanish Empire. The immediate backdrop to the war was Napoleon Bonaparte's 1807 invasion of Spain, which created a power vacuum in Spanish America. Viceroy José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa made Peru a base for counterrevolution and suppressed uprisings in Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia). Peru's elite reluctantly declared independence in 1821 when the Buenos Aires general José de San Martín seized Lima, but fighting continued until the final defeat of the Royalist armies in 1824 at Ayacucho.

During the first decade of the 1800s, Peru was a Royalist stronghold, fighting those in favor of independence in Peru, Bolivia, Quito, and Chile. This was due to several factors, including the conservative attitude of the Peruvian aristocracy, the presence of many Spaniards in the country, the suppression of uprisings by Indigenous people, and the concentration of Spanish military power in Lima. The Haitian Revolution also sowed dread among Peruvian elites.

Viceroy Abascal y Sousa only grudgingly implemented the liberal reforms of the Spanish constitution of 1812 and suppressed Republican armies sent from Buenos Aires through Upper Peru (Bolivia). Peru's elite reluctantly declared independence in 1821 when the Buenos Aires general José de San Martín seized Lima, but fighting continued until the final defeat of the Royalist armies in 1824 at Ayacucho.

The struggle for independence in 18th and 19th century Peru was a complex and multifaceted process, marked by indigenous uprisings, colonial resistance, and the emergence of strong regional identities. Women, in particular, found themselves thrust into positions of leadership and responsibility within their households as husbands fled or were absent.

The role of Simón Bolívar in both countries' independence

Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan soldier and statesman who played a central role in the Latin American independence movement. He was born in 1783 in Caracas, Venezuela, into a wealthy family of American-born Spaniards. Orphaned as a child, Bolívar was raised by his uncle and provided with tutors, including Simón Rodríguez, who introduced him to the world of liberal thought.

Bolívar travelled to Europe in 1800, where he was exposed to Enlightenment philosophy and married María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa. After his wife's death in 1803, Bolívar returned to Venezuela and began promoting Venezuelan independence. In 1810, Bolívar was part of a group of rebels in Venezuela that removed the Spanish viceroy from office and took control of the colony. The next year, Venezuela declared itself independent from Spain. However, in 1814, the Spanish fought back, and Bolívar was forced into exile in Jamaica.

During his exile, Bolívar penned two political treatises: the "Cartagena Manifesto" and the "Letter from Jamaica". In these works, he encouraged the people of South America to rebel against Spanish colonial rule and outlined a plan for independent republics across the continent. Bolívar also called for the freedom of slaves and the distribution of land to indigenous people.

In 1816, Bolívar returned to Venezuela with military support from Haiti and began his campaign to liberate South American territories from Spanish rule. Between 1819 and 1822, he successfully liberated New Granada (Colombia and Panama), Venezuela, and Quito (Ecuador) from Spanish rule. With the help of the Argentine revolutionary José de San Martín, Bolívar also played a key role in liberating Peru (1824) and Upper Peru (1825), which later became Bolivia.

Bolívar was instrumental in the creation of the Republic of Gran Colombia, which included modern-day Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela. He was named president and military dictator of this new republic. Bolívar also served as dictator of Peru from 1823 to 1826 and played a role in the founding processes of the republics of Bolivia and Panama.

Bolívar's dream was for these nations to unite and become stronger together. However, his vision was not shared by everyone, and civil war broke out in 1826. Venezuela and Ecuador withdrew from Gran Colombia, and Bolívar's health began to fail. In 1830, he retired and died later that year of tuberculosis.

The Peruvian Liberation Expedition of 1820

Background

The Peruvian War of Independence, lasting from 1809 to 1826, was a series of military conflicts that ultimately led to Peru breaking free from Spanish rule. During this period, there was a growing discontent in Peru due to the Bourbon Reforms, which sparked an uprising by the indigenous leader Túpac Amaru II in 1780–1781. In the following years, Peru served as a stronghold for royalists, who fought against those seeking independence in Peru, Bolivia, Quito, and Chile.

Planning the Expedition

The liberation of Peru was a carefully planned endeavour. On February 5, 1819, a treaty was signed between the Republic of Chile and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (which later became Argentina). This treaty laid the foundation for a joint military expedition with the explicit goal of liberating Peru from Spanish rule. The Chilean government, recognising the importance of this endeavour, assumed most of the financial burden for the campaign.

The Expedition's Journey

On August 21, 1820, the Peruvian Liberation Expedition, comprising 4,118 soldiers, set sail from Valparaiso under the Chilean flag. This diverse force included units from the Chilean Army and the Liberating Army of the Andes, who had previously fought in the Peruvian War of Independence. The expedition was led by General José de San Martín, an Argentine hero, and the naval fleet was commanded by Lord Thomas Cochrane, a former British naval officer.

Landing in Peru

The expedition arrived at the bay of Pisco, in the present-day Region of Ica, on September 7, 1820. The following day, they successfully captured the province. This event marked the beginning of the end of Spanish rule in Peru. The viceroy of Peru attempted negotiations, but these broke down on October 14 without any resolution.

Military Campaigns

The land forces, led by General San Martín, embarked on campaigns throughout Peru, including the Sierra Campaign led by General Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales. Meanwhile, the naval forces under Admiral Cochrane dealt a significant blow to the royalist navy by capturing the royalist frigate Esmeralda on November 9, 1820. The liberation forces continued to make strides, and by January 8, 1821, General Álvarez de Arenales' troops had rejoined the main expeditionary force.

Declaration of Independence

The liberation expedition entered Lima, the capital, and on July 15, 1821, the Act of Independence of Peru was signed. This momentous occasion was followed by a proclamation of independence by General San Martín in Lima's Plaza Mayor on July 28, 1821. This declaration marked the culmination of the expedition's efforts and the realisation of Peru's independence.

Aftermath

Despite the declaration of independence, the struggle for complete liberation continued. Royalist resistance persisted, and the young republic faced challenges from strongholds in the interior of the country. This situation eventually led to the arrival of Simón Bolívar, who took command of the United Liberation Army of Peru and completed the liberation of the country between 1824 and 1826.

The 1836-39 Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation

The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived union of Peru and Bolivia that existed between 1836 and 1839. It was formed in the aftermath of the civil wars of 1834 and 1835 to 1836, which had divided the Peruvian Republic into North Peru and South Peru. These two states, along with the Bolivian State, were united under the leadership of Bolivia's dictator, Andrés de Santa Cruz, who became the Supreme Protector of the confederation.

Santa Cruz had played a pivotal role in the events leading up to the confederation's formation. In 1835, he helped Peruvian president Luís José de Orbegoso quell an army rebellion, and subsequently divided Peru into northern and southern parts, with Orbegoso as president in the north and General Ramón Herrera in the south. Bolivia, which Santa Cruz already governed as president, was then joined with these two states to form the confederation. Santa Cruz assumed the position of "protector" of the confederation, a lifetime and hereditary office.

The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was recognised by Great Britain, France, and the United States. However, its South American neighbours, particularly Chile and Argentina, viewed the powerful new state with suspicion and opposition. Economic rivalries and fears of geopolitical threats fuelled tensions in the region. Chile, already strained by economic problems with independent Peru, declared war on the confederation in 1836. Argentina, concerned about Santa Cruz's involvement in its internal affairs and the potential military and economic threat of the confederation, followed suit in 1837.

Despite these challenges, Santa Cruz's forces successfully repelled an Argentine army in 1837. However, the Chileans, joined by Peruvian dissidents opposed to Santa Cruz, persisted in their fight. In January 1839, under the command of General Manuel Bulnes, they defeated the forces of the confederation at the Battle of Yungay. This decisive battle led to the immediate dissolution of the confederation. Santa Cruz went into exile, first in Ecuador, then in Chile, and finally in Europe, where he died.

The aftermath of the confederation's dissolution was marked by instability and conflict. Agustín Gamarra, who assumed the presidency of Peru, attempted to subjugate Bolivia but met his end on the battlefield in 1841. Both Peru and Bolivia then entered a period of internal strife and disorder.

The 1809-1814 Junta movements and autonomous uprisings

Quito Junta Movements

The Quito Revolution (1809-1812) was a series of events that took place between 1809 and 1812, which led to the establishment of a short-lived State of Quito. This revolution was led by local intellectuals, doctors, marquises, and Criollos residing in the city of Quito, without the involvement of any Peninsular Spaniard. The First Autonomous Junta of Quito was formed on 10 August 1809, when the Spanish ruler, Manuel Ruiz Urriés de Castilla, was deposed. This event is known as the First Cry of Hispanic American Independence. A Second Junta of Quito was formed in September 1810, and on 9 October 1811, the Second Government Junta declared its independence from the Viceroy of New Granada. The first Ecuadorian Constitution was promulgated on 15 February 1812, establishing a republic with a division of powers.

Peruvian Junta Movements

In Peru, the first significant attempt at an armed rebellion took place in June 1811 in the southern city of Tacna, led by Francisco Antonio de Zela. This was followed by another significant movement in Huánuco, led by natives, which began on 22 February 1812. The Rebellion of Cuzco from 1814 to 1815 was more enduring and involved the proclamation of the autonomy and self-government of Cuzco from the Viceroyalty of Peru. The Cuzco Rebellion was led by the Angulo brothers and Mateo Pumacahua, and it resulted in the formation of a Junta in Cuzco that demanded the complete implementation of the liberal reforms of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The rebellion was eventually squashed by mid-1815 by a combined strength of royal forces and loyal curacas.

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