Angola's Boundary Delimitation: A Historical Perspective

Angola's boundaries were demarcated by a series of late 19th and early 20th-century colonial agreements between Portugal and Belgium. The land border between Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo is divided into two sections: one along the northern Angolan enclave of Cabinda and the other along the rest of Angola. The border between the main part of Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo is much longer at 2,693 km, while the Cabinda-Democratic Republic of the Congo boundary is 285 km. Both sets of boundaries follow a series of rivers and demarcated lines.

Angola's border with the Democratic Republic of Congo

The border between Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo was defined and demarcated by a multitude of late 19th and early 20th-century Portuguese and Belgian colonial agreements. The border follows a series of rivers and demarcated lines. The Cabinda-Congo boundary, for example, follows an irregular and then a straight line to the north-east before turning north, where it proceeds in a straight line up to the Luali River. It then follows this river north to the confluence with the Chiloango and then follows the latter as it flows to the north-east up to the tripoint with the Republic of Congo.

The border between the main part of Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo starts on the Atlantic Coast at the estuary of the Congo River and follows this river eastwards for a period before leaving it just north of the Angolan town of Noqui. It then proceeds in a roughly straight line eastwards, occasionally utilising rivers such as the Mpozo, Lufo, and Luvemba, before reaching the Lubishi River, following this briefly to its confluence with the Kwango. It then follows the Kwango as it flows to the south, before turning east at the confluence with the Utunguila. The border then proceeds eastwards, utilising a number of rivers (notably the Lola, Wamba, Kombo, Lucaia, Kwenge, Luita, Congolo, Lovua, and the Chicapa) and straight overland lines (including the 7th parallel south and 8th parallel south), before reaching the Kasai River. The border then follows this river, and then the Luao, as they flow from the south, before turning east and proceeding overland via various irregular lines to the Zambian tripoint.

Angola's border with the Republic of the Congo

The border between Angola and the Republic of the Congo is part of a larger boundary that separates the two Congos. This boundary is divided into two separate segments: one with the northern Angolan enclave of Cabinda, and one to the south with the rest of Angola. The Cabinda-Republic of the Congo boundary begins in the Atlantic Ocean and continues for 285km before reaching the tripoint with the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The boundary between the main part of Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo is much longer at 2,693km. It also begins in the Atlantic Ocean and follows various west and south trajectories before reaching the tripoint with Zambia. Both sets of boundaries follow a series of rivers and demarcated lines.

The boundaries between the two Congos and Angola were defined and demarcated by a multitude of late 19th and early 20th-century Portuguese and Belgian colonial agreements. France and Portugal signed a border treaty on 12 May 1886, which delimited the western section of the frontier. This was later extended to its current limit by a further treaty of 23 January 1901.

Angola's border with Zambia

The border between Angola and Zambia is 1,110 km (690 mi) in length, demarcated by a combination of natural and artificial features. Beginning at the tripoint with Namibia in the south, the border follows a series of straight-line segments along the limit of the Kwando River Eastern flood plain. It then continues north, incorporating two straight-line segments on the 13th parallel and the 22nd meridian, before reaching the tripoint with the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

The Angola-Zambia border traverses a diverse landscape, including rivers and flood plains, which contribute to the natural demarcation of the boundary. The specific rivers that constitute the border include the Kwando River, which forms a significant natural boundary between the two countries. The Kwando River is known for its Eastern flood plain, which extends along the Angola-Zambia border, creating a natural barrier and influencing the course of the boundary lines.

The border between Angola and Zambia is not just a political demarcation but also holds cultural and historical significance for both nations. The boundary has played a role in shaping the relationships and interactions between the two countries, particularly in the context of Angola's civil war in the 1990s. Since then, relations between the two countries have improved, indicating a positive development in cross-border dynamics.

The management and maintenance of the Angola-Zambia border involve ongoing collaboration between the two countries. Joint efforts are made to ensure the security and efficient functioning of the border crossings, facilitating trade, travel, and diplomatic relations between Angola and Zambia. The border serves as a vital link between the two nations, enabling the exchange of goods, people, and cultural ideas.

The Angola-Zambia border also presents opportunities for cross-border initiatives and collaborations. With a shared boundary, the two countries can work together on various projects, such as conservation efforts, transboundary water management, and the development of cross-border infrastructure. These initiatives can foster cooperation and strengthen the relationship between Angola and Zambia.

Angola's border with Namibia

In Namibia, a greater amount of livestock grazing has occurred, resulting in less vegetative cover than in neighbouring Angola. This may be due to a greater population density in northern Namibia. The border is a straight line across the top of the scene in satellite images, with Namibia at the bottom and Angola at the top.

The maritime boundary between the two countries was established in a 2002 bilateral agreement and follows a parallel of latitude from the mouth of the Cunene River to the 200-metre limit of the Exclusive Economic Zone entitlements of the two states. A joint boundary commission demarcated the starting point of the maritime boundary in 2005.

The border between Angola and Namibia is not the only boundary that has been demarcated in recent years. For example, the border between Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo was also defined and demarcated by a multitude of late 19th and early 20th-century Portuguese and Belgian colonial agreements.

The Cabinda exclave

Angola's boundaries are demarcated by the Democratic Republic of Congo to the east and south, the Republic of the Congo to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. However, one unique aspect of Angola's borders is the Cabinda exclave, a province that is physically separated from the rest of Angola and surrounded by the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Republic of the Congo.

Historically, Cabinda was an autonomous kingdom under the Portuguese protectorate, separate from Angola (then known as Portuguese West Africa). This separation was established by the 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco, which designated Cabinda as a Portuguese protectorate, distinct from Portuguese West Africa. However, over time, Portugal gradually merged the administration of Cabinda and Angola, and by the mid-1950s, Cabinda was treated as an ordinary district of Angola.

When Portugal began withdrawing from its African colonies in the 1970s, Cabinda became part of the newly independent Republic of Angola. This transition was formalised by the Alvor Agreement of 1975, which confirmed Cabinda as an integral part of Angola. However, this agreement was rejected by the Front for the Liberation of the State of Cabinda (FLEC), a separatist movement that advocated for Cabinda's independence.

FLEC has been fighting for Cabinda's independence from Angola since 1975, arguing that the original treaties designated Cabinda as a separate entity from Angola. This conflict has persisted for decades, with FLEC employing guerrilla tactics and attacking economic targets associated with the province's oil industry.

Despite the ongoing struggle for independence, Cabinda remains an integral part of Angola, contributing significantly to the country's economy. The situation in Cabinda highlights the complexities of demarcating boundaries, especially in regions with a history of colonial rule and competing political interests.

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