Ruqayyah Snyder
Australia's state borders have evolved over time, with the first British colonies being the penal colony of New South Wales, founded in 1788, and the Swan River Colony (later renamed Western Australia) in 1829. New colonies were gradually created from New South Wales, including Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania (formerly Van Diemen's Land), and Victoria. These colonies became states in the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, with Canberra as the purpose-built capital territory. The internal borders have remained mostly stable since federation, except for some territorial adjustments, such as the creation of the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. Border disputes have occurred due to errors in astronomical observations and survey methods, but rulings have generally upheld the established physical references or property lines. Today, Australia's states and territories have unique border lengths and adjacencies, with New South Wales boasting the longest land border, adjoining five other states and territories.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Basis for borders | The Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 split the world into two equal hemispheres for Spain and Portugal |
| Border disputes | Errors in observatory positioning and reliance on older technologies led to border disputes, but physical references and property lines generally upheld original rulings |
| Border lengths | New South Wales has the longest land border at 4,635 km, adjoining Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, and Jervis Bay Territory |
| Border anomalies | The Jervis Bay Territory land border with NSW is the shortest at 32 km; the Australian Capital Territory is the only landlocked state or territory |
| Border surveys | The Queensland-New South Wales border was surveyed from 1863-1866, but a falling out between surveyors led to two separate surveys and the destruction of NSW records in a fire |
| Historical changes | New Zealand was once part of New South Wales, and New Guinea was part of Queensland; the Northern Australia Act of 1926 divided the Northern Territory into North and Central Australia, but this was repealed in 1932 |
| Capital territories | Canberra was purpose-built as a capital territory between Sydney and Melbourne; the Australian Capital Territory was added later |
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What You'll Learn
The creation of colonies
The creation of Australian colonies began with the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships in 1788, marking the start of the early British colonial period. The First Fleet established the penal colony of New South Wales as part of the British Empire, which was governed by a captain of the Royal Navy. The New South Wales Corps, formed in England in 1789, relieved the marines who accompanied the First Fleet and soon became involved in the corrupt rum trade in the colony. Governor William Bligh attempted to suppress the trade, leading to the Rum Rebellion of 1808, the only successful armed takeover of the government in Australian history. This resulted in a brief period of military rule until Governor Lachlan Macquarie arrived in 1810, serving as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales until 1821. During this period, New South Wales transitioned from a penal colony to a budding civil society, with an economy based on farming, fishing, whaling, trade, and construction using convict labour.
In 1824, the Moreton Bay penal settlement was established on the site of present-day Brisbane. The penal colony was closed in 1842, and the area was opened for free settlement, leading to an increase in population and conflict with the Indigenous population. Van Diemen's Land became a separate colony in 1825, followed by free settlements at the Swan River Colony in Western Australia (1829), the Province of South Australia (1836), and the Port Philip District (1836). These colonies experienced conflict with Aboriginal people due to the expansion of grazing lands and disruption of traditional lands.
The process of creating colonies involved assisted migration programs aimed at promoting the migration of women and families to achieve a more balanced gender ratio. Caroline Chisholm played a significant role in this effort by establishing a shelter and labour exchange for migrant women in New South Wales during the 1840s. The Church of England, the only recognised church before 1820, worked closely with the colonial governors to improve "public morality" and actively participated in health and education initiatives.
The formation of colonies also led to border disputes and the need to define state borders. For example, the border between Queensland and New South Wales was defined by letters of patent in 1859 as lying between Point Danger and following watersheds and rivers to the line of parallel of 29° south. The survey was completed by Francis Roberts of Queensland and Isiah Rowland of New South Wales, despite their disagreement, which resulted in separate surveys being conducted. These surveys played a role in establishing the physical references and property lines that influenced the positioning of state borders.
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Federation in 1901
The Commonwealth of Australia was formed on January 1, 1901, when the colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania (formerly Van Diemen's Land), Victoria, and Western Australia (formerly the Swan River Colony) became states. New Zealand was the only colony that did not join the Commonwealth. The Constitution of Australia, which came into force on the same day, established a bicameral Parliament, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. It also created the office of governor-general, who would represent the Queen and the British Government.
The federation process in Australia was marked by a series of conventions held during the 1890s, which aimed to develop a constitution for the Commonwealth. The Border Federation League of Corowa held a significant conference in 1893, and a "People's Convention" in Bathurst in 1896 demonstrated the growing support for federation. The Quick scheme, proposed by John Quick and supported by George Reid, the premier of NSW, was approved by all premiers in 1895. It called for a popularly elected convention to draft a constitution, which would then be put to a referendum in each colony. The Australasian Federal Convention Elections were held in March 1897, and delegates met in Adelaide, Sydney, and Melbourne over the next year.
Sir Edmund Barton, who had been a committed supporter of federation, became Australia's first prime minister in March 1901. He led an interim Federal ministry of nine members. The new constitution provided for the establishment of a High Court and divided powers between the states and the new Commonwealth government. The states retained their own parliaments and most existing powers, but the federal government took responsibility for defence, immigration, quarantine, customs, banking, and coinage, among other powers. Federation also resulted in the creation of a customs and fiscal union, with tariffs abolished on interstate trade.
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Border disputes and rulings
Australia's state borders have evolved over time, with the country's federation in 1901 unifying the states. However, border disputes have occurred, and the rulings have generally upheld the position of borders with established physical references or property lines. Here is a detailed look at some of the border disputes and their rulings:
- Queensland-New South Wales Border: The border between Queensland and New South Wales was defined by letters of patent dated June 6, 1859, as lying between Point Danger, following watersheds and rivers to the line of parallel of 29° south. A survey was carried out between 1863 and 1866, but a falling out between the surveyors, Francis Roberts of Queensland and Isiah Rowland of New South Wales, led to separate surveys. New South Wales' survey records were destroyed in a fire, so the Queensland survey was adopted. This resulted in the establishment of the border as we know it today.
- New South Wales and Victoria Border: While most border corners in South Australia, where it meets another state, are marked with concrete pillars, the corner where New South Wales and Victoria meet is an exception. This border remains unnamed and unmarked.
- Western Australia-South Australia-Northern Territory Border: Maps of Australia often depict the border running along the eastern edge of Western Australia as a continuous straight line, which is not entirely accurate. This border is not a single straight line but a series of lines and markers.
- Australian Capital Territory: The creation of the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) was a result of the 1926 Northern Australia Act, which divided the Northern Territory into North Australia (above the 20-degree parallel of south latitude) and Central Australia (below the 20-degree parallel). This Act was repealed in 1932, but the ACT remains the only landlocked state or territory in Australia.
These examples highlight some of the key border disputes and rulings that have shaped the borders of Australian states and territories.
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Territory changes
The Australian states operated independently before being united under the Australian Federation in 1901. Prior to this, the continent was divided into different colonies, with New Zealand once being part of New South Wales and New Guinea a part of Queensland.
The borders of these colonies were often in flux, with a boundary between New South Wales and Queensland being defined in 1859, surveyed between 1863 and 1866, and modified again between 1879 and 1881.
The Northern Australia Act of 1926 also temporarily altered the borders of the Northern Territory, with the area north of the 20-degree parallel becoming North Australia, and the area to the south being designated Central Australia. However, this act was repealed in 1932, restoring the previous boundaries.
Additionally, proposals were made to formally subdivide the Australian colonies, such as Captain James Vetch's 1838 proposal to give each colony equal areas and access to the coast. However, these proposals never came to fruition.
Despite advancements in technology, few state borders are where they were originally intended due to reliance on established physical references or property lines in ruling border disputes.
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Expansion beyond Australia
Historically, Australia has had an expansionist agenda beyond its borders, with Queensland attempting to expand into New Guinea, which was rejected by the British authorities. However, New Guinea was later ceded to Australia as a British protectorate. New Zealand was once part of New South Wales, and Queensland also had an interest in the "Plains of Promise" in the Gulf of Carpentaria.
The Northern Territory was originally part of South Australia, and in 1926, it was split into Central Australia and North Australia, which were quickly merged back together. This split was repealed in 1932, leaving the boundaries as they are known today.
In addition, the Australian Capital Territory was created as a federal district ceded from New South Wales.
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Frequently asked questions
The Australian states were originally colonies of the British Empire. Over time, these colonies were split up and formed into the states we know today. The internal borders have mostly remained stable since the colonies became states in 1901, except for the creation of some territories with limited self-government.
The first colony of the British Empire on the continent of Australia was the penal colony of New South Wales, founded in 1788.
Queensland, South Australia, Van Diemen's Land (later renamed Tasmania), Victoria, and an aborted Colony of North Australia were all created from New South Wales.
The border between New South Wales and Queensland is the longest land border between two Australian states, with a total length of 4,635 kilometres.
Yes, there have been border disputes between several states due to errors in the astronomically determined positions of observatories in Melbourne and Sydney. However, rulings have generally upheld the position of borders with established physical references or property lines.
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