Russia-Belarus Ties: Historical, Political, And Cultural Links

Belarus and Russia are linked in several ways. Geographically, the two countries share a land border, with Russia bordering Belarus to the east and northeast. Both countries are also members of various international organisations, including the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Eurasian Economic Union, the Collective Security Treaty Organization, and the United Nations.

The two countries have a long shared history, with Russia occupying Belarus at the end of the 18th century, and later, in 1944, retaking it from Nazi Germany. In more recent times, Russia and Belarus have continued to strengthen their ties, with the signing of the 1999 Agreement on the Establishment of the Union State of Belarus and Russia, which set a legal basis for integration between the two countries.

Shared history and language

Belarus and Russia share a history that dates back to the medieval period. Between the medieval period and the 20th century, different states at various times controlled the lands of modern-day Belarus, including Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire.

In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution in 1917, different states arose competing for legitimacy amid the Civil War, ultimately ending in the rise of the Byelorussian SSR, which became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922. Belarus was occupied by the Russian Empire from the end of the 18th century until it declared a short-lived National Republic on March 25, 1918, after which it was forcibly absorbed by the Bolsheviks into the Soviet Union.

During the Soviet era, the Belarusian defense sector became almost totally dependent on contracts with Moscow. The two countries' intertwined economies were further bolstered by the 1996–99 Union State treaties, which called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policy.

In addition to their shared history, Belarus and Russia also share a language. According to the 2009 census, 53% of Belarusians described Belarusian as their "mother tongue," while 41% said the same of Russian. Furthermore, 70% said they spoke Russian at home, while 23% said they spoke Belarusian.

However, since the election of Alexander Lukashenko, most schools in major cities have taught in Russian rather than Belarusian, and the annual circulation of Belarusian-language literature has decreased significantly.

Military cooperation

Russia and Belarus have a history of military cooperation, with the two countries coordinating their air defence systems, conducting joint military exercises, and participating in military drills together. In 2024, Belarus's Defence Minister, Viktor Khrenin, stated that Minsk was open to military cooperation with any state, including NATO members. However, Belarus has been a staunch ally of Russia, particularly after the 2020 Belarusian presidential elections, which saw Minsk increasingly isolated from the West.

Russia and Belarus have engaged in various joint military-scientific activities and Russia operates several military bases and radars in Belarus, including the Hantsavichy Radar Station and the Vileyka VLF transmitter. The two countries have also established a joint regional military force, which operates effectively. They have also agreed to establish three permanent joint training centres, two in Russia (Kaliningrad and Nizhny Novgorod) and one in Grodno, Belarus. The latter is significant as it allows a more permanent Russian presence in Belarus, on the Polish border.

Since the political crisis in Belarus, the Lukashenko regime has had few options other than to align with Moscow, and it has offered its territory to Russia to support its aggression against Ukraine. Russia has used Belarus as a staging ground for its invasion of Ukraine, with Russian forces invading from Belarusian territory in 2022. Lukashenko has stated that Belarusian troops could take part in the invasion if needed and that Russia can bring its nuclear weapons onto Belarusian soil.

Russia and Belarus have participated in several joint military exercises, including the Union Shield exercises, which alternate between the two countries, and the Zapad series of strategic command staff exercises. There are also trilateral exercises, such as Slavic Brotherhood, which includes Serbia, and exercises under the auspices of the Russian-led Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). These exercises have become more frequent, with Russia and Belarus holding joint tactical drills in March 2021 at Osipovichsky and Ulyanovsk, featuring paratroopers and Belarusian special forces. Some exercises have begun to test combined Russian-Belarusian battalions, indicating further plans for integration at the tactical level.

The close military cooperation between Russia and Belarus is underpinned by their shared geographic location, history, and cultural links. Belarus plays an integral part in Russian military thinking and organisation when it comes to the defence of the country's western borders. It serves as a buffer state, part of a Russian strategy of extended defence. Russia seeks to retain a degree of permanent military presence in Belarus and establish the ability to coordinate with a Belarusian regional combat grouping of forces (RGF). In the event of conflict, these forces can serve as an operational grouping within a broader military effort led by the Western Military District's Joint Strategic Command (JSC).

Economic ties

Russia is Belarus's largest and most important economic and political partner. Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market. Russia accounts for more than half of Belarus's foreign trade, and Belarus, in turn, accounts for around 6% of Russia's trade.

The two countries share intertwined economies and are united by a number of legal agreements and treaties that codify their strategic partnership. They are both members of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), which Belarus considers the most advanced integration community in the post-Soviet area. The EEU helps its member states create the conditions necessary for the free flow of goods, services, capital, and labour force, as well as equal conditions and guarantees for economic agents.

In 2000, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, forming the Union State, a supranational confederation that called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defence policy. The Union State was established in a series of treaties between 1996 and 1999, which set up a legal basis for integration between the two countries. The two countries also signed the Treaty on Equal Rights of Citizens in 1998, covering employment, and access to medical care and education.

In 2022, Belarus and Russia further developed their cooperation in the areas of energy, transport, and industrial cooperation, launching joint projects for the production of import-substituting products based on the flagships of the Belarusian industry. They also coordinate their foreign policies according to the Programme of Agreed Measures in the Field of Foreign Policy, which is renewed every two years.

However, the future of the Union State has been placed in doubt due to Belarus's repeated delays in monetary union, the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution, and disputes over the petroleum trade. There have been several economic disputes between the two countries in the 2000s, including the 2004 Russia-Belarus energy dispute, the 2007 Russia-Belarus energy dispute, and the so-called Milk War in 2009.

Despite these setbacks, Russia and Belarus have continued to work together, and in 2019, Lukashenko declared that the two countries "could unite tomorrow, no problem."

Diplomatic relations

Belarus and Russia share a land border and constitute the supranational Union State, which was established in 1996–99 through a series of treaties. These treaties called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defence policy. The two countries are also members of various international organisations, including the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Eurasian Economic Union, the Collective Security Treaty Organization, and the United Nations.

The relationship between Belarus and Russia is unique and complex. It is based on shared history and language, deep cultural affinity, legal agreements that codify a strategic partnership, intertwined economies, and shared threat perceptions of the West and NATO. The two countries' governments are led by highly personalist regimes that have decades of experience managing the partnership and share a nostalgic view of the Soviet Union.

Russia is Belarus's largest and most important economic and political partner. At the end of 2022, mutual trade between the two countries increased by almost 15%, and Russia accounts for more than half of Belarus's foreign trade. Belarus, in turn, accounted for around 6% of Russia's trade. The two countries have close military relations and are engaged in various joint military-scientific activities, with Russia operating several military bases and radars in Belarus.

The integration process between the two countries was launched on 2 April 1996, and the Union of Belarus and Russia was founded a year later. This culminated in the establishment of a Union State between the countries on 8 December 1999, with the signing of the Treaty on Equal Rights of Citizens between Belarus and Russia, which covers employment, and access to medical care and education.

Despite their close ties, the relationship between Belarus and Russia is not one between equals. Belarus's sovereignty marks a point of departure between the two countries, with the Russian government viewing Belarus as a "brotherly nation" that defers to Moscow on all important matters. Meanwhile, the Belarusian government, opposition, and people see themselves as different from Russia and attempt to demonstrate their sovereignty, even if these demonstrations are symbolic or suppressed.

Since the 2000s, there have been several economic disputes between the two countries, including the 2004 Russia–Belarus energy dispute, the 2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute, and the so-called Milk War in 2009. In addition, Russia's preference for contracting for components rather than final military products has limited the growth of the Belarusian industry.

In recent years, there have been signs of tension in the relationship. In January 2020, Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko publicly accused Russian President Vladimir Putin of trying to incorporate Belarus into Russia, leading to Russia cutting economic subsidies for Belarus. In July 2020, the relationship between the two countries was described as "strained" after 33 Russian military contractors were arrested in Minsk, and Lukashenko accused Russia of attempting to destabilise the country ahead of its presidential election.

However, despite these tensions, the two countries continue to cooperate in various areas. In 2022, joint projects were launched for the production of import-substituting products, and Belarus and Russia coordinate their foreign policies effectively according to a programme that is renewed every two years.

Cultural links

The cultural links between Belarus and Russia are extensive and wide-ranging. Both countries share a geographic border and have a history of close cooperation. The two nations also have a shared history, with the Russian President, Boris Yeltsin, stating in 1995 that "the two nations [had] shared a common historical experience over many centuries".

One of the most significant cultural links between the two countries is their shared artistic heritage. The history of art in Belarus, for example, can be traced back to Byzantine influences in the 14th century, which saw the emergence of iconography and manuscript illustration. After the October Revolution in Russia in 1917, the northern Belarusian town of Vitebsk became the centre for the revolutionary avant-garde movement. This movement was founded by Marc Chagall, one of the most famous Belarusians, who was born in Vitebsk in 1887.

The fine art of Belarus varies in style, direction and genre, with captivating work by Belarusian artists on display in museums across the country. The largest collection of Belarusian art can be found in the National Art Museum of the Republic of Belarus, which actively promotes national art. Other prominent museums include the Vitebsk Art Museum, the Mogilev Regional Art Museum, and the Polotsk Art Gallery.

Belarusian literature also has deep roots, with the first literary works being religious texts from the 11th to 13th centuries. By the 16th century, Francysk Skaryna had translated the Bible into Belarusian, making it the first book printed in Belarus or anywhere in Eastern Europe. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Belarusian literature was epitomised by the literary works of Yanka Kupala and Yakub Kolas, who wrote widely on rural themes and modernised the Belarusian literary language.

Music is another important aspect of Belarusian culture, with most people in the country able to play at least one musical instrument. Classical music performances remain popular, with orchestras such as the Presidential Orchestra of the Republic of Belarus and the State Academic Symphony Orchestra drawing large audiences. Traditional and folk music also have a big following, with folk rock acts such as Pesniary becoming extremely popular in the Soviet Union and beyond. Belarus has also produced several notable musicians in more contemporary genres, including rock music, with bands like Bi-2, Lyapis Trubetskoy, and Krama gaining popularity in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Belarusian theatre has evolved from folk rituals and travelling minstrels, with puppet theatres, professional theatre companies, opera, and ballet all playing a significant role in the country's cultural landscape. The country hosts numerous theatre festivals, including the International Theater Festival Belaya Vezha in Brest and the International Festival of Student Theaters Teatralny Kufar in Minsk.

In addition to these artistic endeavours, Belarus and Russia also share cultural links through their joint participation in various international organisations, such as the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Eurasian Economic Union, and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. These organisations provide a platform for the two countries to coordinate their foreign policies and strengthen their cultural cooperation.

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