Angola's Enclave: A Unique Territory

Angola does have an exclave, the province of Cabinda, which is separated from the rest of the country by the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Cabinda is an oil-rich region, contributing to around 60% of Angola's oil production, and has a unique cultural and ethnic background compared to the rest of Angola. The region has a long history of seeking independence from Angola, with several political organisations and armed groups advocating for self-determination due to feelings of marginalisation and a lack of economic benefits from their natural resources.

The Republic of Cabinda

Angola does have an exclave—a small territory that is part of a state but is separated from it by another state. The exclave in question is the Republic of Cabinda, a territory of 7,284 square kilometres in west-central Africa, which is sandwiched between the Democratic Republic of Congo to the south and east, the Republic of the Congo to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

The 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco designated Cabinda a Portuguese protectorate known as the Portuguese Congo, which was separate from Portuguese West Africa (Angola). In the 20th century, Portugal integrated Cabinda as a district within the "overseas province" of Angola. During the Portuguese Colonial War, FLEC fought for Cabinda's independence from Portugal. Independence was proclaimed on 1 August 1975, and FLEC formed a provisional government led by Henrique N'zita Tiago, with Luis Ranque Franque elected president.

In January 1975, Angola's three national liberation movements—the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA)—met with the colonial power in Alvor, Portugal, to establish the modalities of the transition to independence. There was no representation for Cabinda, despite it being a Portuguese protectorate. On 15 January 1975, the Alvor Agreement was signed, laying the groundwork for Angolan independence and confirming Cabinda as part of Angola. However, Portugal suspended the Alvor agreements just over a month before Angola's independence, making Angola's claim to Cabinda void. Nevertheless, after Angola's independence was declared in November 1975, Cabinda was occupied by forces of the MPLA, which had been present in Cabinda since the mid-1960s.

For much of the 1970s and 1980s, FLEC fought a low-intensity guerrilla war, attacking Angolan government troops and economic targets, and kidnapping foreign employees working in the province's oil and construction businesses. In July 2006, after ceasefire negotiations, António Bento Bembe, as president of the Cabindan Forum for Dialogue and Peace, announced that the Cabindan separatist forces were ready to declare a ceasefire. A peace treaty was signed, but FLEC-FAC from Paris contends that Bembe had no authority to negotiate with the Angolans and that total independence is the only acceptable solution.

Angola's invasion of Cabinda

The roots of the conflict lie in the complex colonial history of the region. Cabinda, a territory in west-central Africa, was a Portuguese protectorate, known as the Portuguese Congo, from 1885 until it gained independence in 1975. It was administratively separate from Portuguese West Africa (Angola) and had a distinct history and legal status.

In the 20th century, however, Portugal began to integrate Cabinda as a district within the "overseas province" of Angola. This process was formalised in the 1950s and 1960s, and Cabinda was eventually treated as an ordinary district of Angola. This integration was opposed by many Cabindans, who advocated for separate independence.

When Portugal granted independence to its colonies in 1974, it did not include Cabinda, which was still a Portuguese protectorate. In January 1975, Angola's three national liberation movements (MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA) met with Portugal in Alvor to establish the transition to independence. Cabinda was not represented in these negotiations, and the resulting Alvor Agreement, signed in January 1975, confirmed Cabinda as part of Angola.

On 1 August 1975, FLEC leader Luis Ranque Franque proclaimed the independence of the "Republic of Cabinda" at an Organisation of African Unity (OAU) summit in Kampala. However, this declaration went unrecognised, and in November 1975, MPLA troops, supported by Cuban forces, invaded and incorporated Cabinda into Angola.

The invasion led to a prolonged conflict between FLEC and the Angolan government, with FLEC conducting guerrilla warfare, attacking government troops and economic targets, and kidnapping foreign workers. This conflict has persisted, with varying levels of intensity, into the 21st century, with a peace accord signed in 2006 providing a period of relative calm. However, FLEC continues to advocate for the independence of Cabinda, and sporadic clashes have occurred in recent years.

The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC)

FLEC was formed in 1963 when three organisations—the Movement for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (MLEC), the Action Committee of the Cabinda National Union (CAUNC), and the Mayombe National Alliance (ALLIAMA)—merged. This occurred during the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974), in which nationalist movements of Cabinda fought against the Portuguese Armed Forces.

In 1975, FLEC constituted a provisional government, led by Henriques Tiago, that proclaimed Cabindan independence from Portugal. Luís Ranque Franque was elected president. However, in November 1975, Angola gained independence from Portugal and claimed Cabinda as part of its territory. The provisional Cabindan government was overturned, and FLEC responded by initiating an armed struggle, aiming to create a separate Cabindan state.

FLEC has since split into several factions, including FLEC-Renovada, FLEC-N'Zita, FLEC-Lubota, and FLEC-FAC. Despite internal divisions and a lack of international support, FLEC has continued its struggle for independence, both inside and outside Cabinda.

In 2006, after ceasefire negotiations, António Bento Bembe, as president of the Cabindan Forum for Dialogue and Peace and vice-president and executive secretary of FLEC, announced that the Cabindan separatist forces were ready to declare a ceasefire. A peace treaty was signed, but FLEC-FAC from Paris contends that Bembe had no authority to negotiate and that total independence is the only acceptable solution.

The conflict has continued, with FLEC carrying out guerrilla actions and kidnappings. In 2010, an offshoot of FLEC claimed responsibility for an attack on the Togo national football team, which resulted in three deaths and several injuries. FLEC stated that the attack was aimed at Angolan forces escorting the team and not at the players themselves.

Oil and the Angolan economy

Angola has abundant untapped oil and gas resources, with proven crude oil reserves of 9 billion barrels and natural gas reserves of 11 trillion cubic feet. The petroleum industry is key to the country's economy, accounting for almost 75% of its revenues. Angola is a leading oil producer on the continent, having recently surpassed Nigeria and Algeria.

The country's economy has been heavily influenced by the effects of four decades of conflict in the late 20th century, including the war for independence from Portugal and the subsequent civil war. In recent years, Angola has been trying to diversify its economy, but it remains heavily dependent on the oil and gas sector. Oil and gas products make up more than 90% of its exports, with crude oil exports alone accounting for US$39.94 billion in 2022.

Angola's first oil wells were drilled over a century ago, but the country's history with oil goes back further. In the 1700s, Portuguese colonialists discovered oil seeps and asphalt deposits north of Luanda. The country's first commercial onshore deposits were proven in 1955, and its first offshore discovery, the Malongo, was made in 1968. Following its independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola established Sonangol U.E.E. to manage the exploitation of its hydrocarbon resources.

Deep-water reserves have been a major driver of Angola's increased prominence in the oil industry and its economic transformation. Ultra-deep pre-salt reserves in blocks awarded in 2011, which reach depths of more than 5,000 meters below sea level, are broaching new frontiers in deep-water discoveries. Angola's offshore fields produce a light, sweet crude oil with low sulphur, which is sought after for processing light, refined petroleum products.

In recent years, there have been significant discoveries in Angola's offshore fields, such as the Girassol field discovered by Total Fina Elf (now TotalEnergies) in 1996. In July 2022, a final investment decision of US$850 million was announced for the CLOV Phase 3 development for offshore Block 17, which is expected to start producing in late 2024. Additionally, ExxonMobil and its partners announced a new oil discovery at the Bavuca South-1 exploration well in Block 15 in November 2022, which was the first discovery in that block in nearly 20 years.

Angola's economy has been heavily dependent on the production of raw materials and the use of cheap labour since European rule began in the 16th century. During the colonial period, Angola was primarily used as a source for the thriving slave trade, with Luanda becoming the greatest slaving port in Africa. After the abolition of the slave trade in 1858, the Portuguese began using concessional agreements to exploit land, people, and resources within the territory. The principal exports during this time were rubber, beeswax, and ivory.

Following independence, the Angolan government nationalised most businesses and farms abandoned by the Portuguese. It established state farms to produce coffee, sugar, and sisal, and took over the operations of factories. However, these attempts often failed due to a lack of experienced managers and disruptions caused by the UNITA insurgency. The petroleum sector, however, continued to operate successfully, helping the gross domestic product reach US$3.6 billion by 1988.

In recent years, the Angolan government has implemented regulatory and structural reforms in the oil and gas sector, including creating a new regulator, the National Agency for Petroleum, Gas and Biofuels (ANPG), and transferring concessionaires' rights from the national oil company Sonangol to the ANPG. These reforms aim to boost investment and production in the sector, and to reduce the country's dependence on oil.

Angola's upstream oil and gas market shows promise and is expected to attract increased investment in the coming years. The country has designated 55 oil and gas blocks to be auctioned off by 2025, with major international companies such as Eni and TotalEnergies winning operatorships. Angola's New Gas Consortium (NGC) has also made strides, reaching a final investment decision for the Quiluma and Maboqueiro gas project, which is expected to start producing in 2026.

While Angola's economy has diverse sectors, including agriculture, fisheries, and mining, oil remains the dominant sector. The combination of recent regulatory and fiscal reforms, along with significant oil discoveries, provides a foundation for cautious confidence in the country's economic recovery and development.

Human rights abuses

Angola has been criticised for its human rights record, with reports of abuses by state security forces, violations of freedom of assembly, and discrimination against women and marginalised groups.

Abuses by State Security Forces

Angolan state security forces have been implicated in serious human rights abuses, including the use of excessive force against peaceful protesters, arbitrary detention, and intimidation. In January 2021, police killed at least 10 protesters who had gathered to demand better public services in Cafunfu, Lunda Norte province. Video footage showed officers kicking and beating detainees. In February 2023, the Angolan NGO Mosaiko accused police of intimidating activists and religious missionaries in Lunda Norte. Security forces have also used force to prevent peaceful protests, including firing live bullets, using tear gas, and dogs to disperse demonstrations.

Freedom of Assembly

The right to freedom of assembly is threatened in Angola. The authorities have used excessive force to impede or prevent peaceful demonstrations, leading to unlawful killings, intimidation, beatings, and arbitrary arrests. In February 2023, the Angolan National Police (PNA) prevented a vigil from taking place in the capital Luanda and Benguela, and in April 2023, the PNA stopped a protest by activists in Luanda. In September 2022, the PNA broke up a peaceful demonstration by motorcycle taxi drivers in Luanda, detaining seven civil society activists who were later sentenced to two years and five months' imprisonment each.

Discrimination Against Marginalised Groups

Angola has been criticised for discrimination and violence against women, abuse of children, and discrimination against persons with disabilities, indigenous people, and persons with HIV/AIDS. Women face widespread societal discrimination, particularly in rural areas, and an executive decree prohibits them from holding certain jobs. Domestic violence and sexual harassment are common, and rape, including marital rape, is punishable by up to eight years in prison, although most cases are not prosecuted due to limited resources. Children are also vulnerable, with reports of child abuse, child labour, and sexual exploitation. Persons with disabilities face discrimination and lack access to buildings and services, and indigenous peoples have little connection to Angolan society or the state.

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