The Battle-Scarred History Of Afghanistan: A Nation Plagued By Perpetual War

Afghanistan has been involved in multiple wars over the last few decades, including the Soviet-Afghan War, the War in Afghanistan, and the ongoing Afghan conflict.

The War in Afghanistan was an armed conflict that lasted from 2001 to 2021. It was a direct response to the September 11 attacks, which were plotted by al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, who was harboured by the Taliban-ruled Islamic Emirate in Afghanistan. The conflict ended with the Taliban overthrowing the Islamic Republic and re-establishing the Islamic Emirate.

The War in Afghanistan was the longest war in US military history, surpassing the length of the Vietnam War by approximately six months. The conflict resulted in the deaths of an estimated 176,000–212,000+ people, including 46,319 civilians.

The US War in Afghanistan

The US-led invasion of Afghanistan began on October 7, 2001, with the aim of toppling the Taliban and dismantling Al-Qaeda. The Taliban, a Sunni Islamic fundamentalist movement, had controlled most of Afghanistan since 1996. The invasion, known as Operation Enduring Freedom, involved US and British forces carrying out air strikes on Taliban targets, with support from other nations. The Taliban regime quickly unravelled, and by November, the Taliban had lost control of most of the country.

The first phase of the war ended with the Taliban's removal from power, but Al-Qaeda leaders, including Osama Bin Laden, managed to escape to Pakistan. The US focus then shifted to rebuilding core institutions of the Afghan state. However, the Taliban regrouped and launched an insurgency against the new Afghan government and coalition forces.

In 2008, the US adopted a counterinsurgency strategy, sending additional troops to Afghanistan to protect the population from Taliban attacks and support reintegration efforts. Despite this, the Taliban continued to make territorial gains, and by 2014, the security situation had deteriorated, with the Taliban controlling or contesting more than a third of the country.

In February 2020, the US and the Taliban signed a peace deal, agreeing to a timeline for the withdrawal of US troops from Afghanistan. However, the Taliban soon resumed attacks, and in August 2021, they seized control of Kabul, marking the end of America's longest war.

The Soviet-Afghan War

The war began after the Soviets, under the command of Leonid Brezhnev, launched an invasion of Afghanistan to support the local pro-Soviet government that had been installed during Operation Storm-333. The invasion was a response to the Herat uprising, the first major sign of anti-regime resistance, and the killing of Soviet technicians in Herat by rioting mobs. The Soviets occupied Afghanistan's major cities and all main arteries of communication, whereas the mujahideen waged guerrilla warfare in small groups across the 80% of the country that was not subject to uncontested Soviet control. The Soviets used their aerial power to deal harshly with both Afghan resistance and civilians, levelling villages to deny safe haven to the mujahideen, destroying vital irrigation ditches and other scorched-earth tactics.

The Soviet government had initially planned to swiftly secure Afghanistan's towns and road networks, stabilize the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) government, and withdraw all of their military forces in a span of six months to one year. However, they were met with fierce resistance from Afghan guerrillas and experienced great operational difficulties on the rugged mountainous terrain. By the mid-1980s, the Soviet military presence in Afghanistan had increased to approximately 115,000 troops and fighting across the country intensified; the complication of the war effort gradually inflicted a high cost on the Soviet Union as military, economic, and political resources became increasingly exhausted. By mid-1987, reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev announced that the Soviet military would begin a complete withdrawal from Afghanistan. The final wave of disengagement was initiated on 15 May 1988, and on 15 February 1989, the last Soviet military column occupying Afghanistan crossed into the Uzbek SSR.

The Taliban's rise to power

The Taliban, an ultraconservative political and religious faction, rose to power in Afghanistan in the mid-1990s following the withdrawal of Soviet troops, the collapse of Afghanistan's communist regime, and the subsequent breakdown in civil order. The group was formed by Afghan mujahideen, or Islamic guerrilla fighters, who had resisted the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan.

• The downfall of the government the Soviets had left behind in Kabul
• Pushtun resentment that the regime replacing the government was dominated by non-Pushtuns
• Large-scale external assistance, especially from Pakistan
• Chronic divisions among the non-Pushtuns
• Popular fatigue with the constant conflict following the Soviet departure
• Limited external assistance to non-Pushtun forces

The Taliban's ascent to power began in 1994 when a small band of Taliban militants freed a convoy from Pakistan that had been captured by an Afghan warlord in southern Afghanistan. With that initial public appearance, the Taliban emerged as a reformist force—honest, fierce, and devoutly Islamic. The Taliban's efforts were initially embraced by war-ravaged Afghans. However, their promise to end the chaos of war and warlords resulted in the imposition of a strict interpretation of Islamic law.

The Taliban received support from more mature governments, namely Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the Gulf states, who offered training and initial financial support. Ironically, the Taliban was also endorsed by the United States, which initially perceived the group as a stabilizing force and a counterweight to Iran.

The Taliban seized control of Kabul and most of Afghanistan in 1996. By 2001, the Taliban controlled as much as 90% of Afghanistan, with the Northern Alliance confined to the country's northeast corner. The Taliban imposed their fundamentalist Deobandi interpretation of Islam in areas under their control, issuing edicts forbidding women to work outside the home, attend school, or leave their homes without a male relative.

The Taliban's rule was short-lived, as they were quickly overthrown by U.S.-led forces in 2001. However, the group never truly disappeared and continued to wage an insurgency against the U.S.-backed government in Kabul. In 2021, the Taliban returned to power in Afghanistan, nearly two decades after their initial ouster.

The Taliban's offensive strategies

1996-2001: Maximum Control

The Taliban's initial approach was to exert maximum control over the flow of information. They banned photography, TV, music, and all forms of entertainment. They also banned the internet and dismantled state-run television stations, criminalizing the act of watching television. The Taliban's ultra-conservative laws were implemented by the moral police, who would stop vehicles on roads and search for hidden tapes and video cassettes. Offenders would be thrown in jail, publicly punished, or let off with a warning to spend time in the mosque. The few radio stations that remained on air were state-run and heavily censored.

2001-2021: An Insurgent Media

Following their ouster from Afghanistan, the Taliban's media strategy changed dramatically. They took advantage of the rapidly changing media landscape and the advent of encrypted messaging applications to increase their outreach and online presence. They adopted a decentralized media strategy, similar to other violent jihadist groups, to maximize outreach and information dissemination, foster grassroots support, and protect against decapitation strikes. The Taliban framed themselves as a nationalist group with the aim of establishing an Emirate in Afghanistan, bolstering their own legitimacy and delegitimizing the former Afghan government. They also tailored their messaging to resonate with local populations, leveraging local culture and shared religious views. This proved to be a successful media strategy, allowing the Taliban to shape the information environment and force their adversaries to respond.

August 2021-Present: Media Blackout & Social Control

Following their return to power, the Taliban have attempted to control the flow of information into and out of the country. The national media faces heavy restrictions, and the international media has limited presence in the country. Female television presenters must cover their faces, and entertainment programs—particularly those showing women—have been stopped. Journalists operating in the country are self-censoring, and those who criticize the Taliban face persecution, imprisonment, and torture. The Taliban have also tried to control social media by flooding platforms with an active online presence. Dozens of pro-Taliban accounts have sprung up, and many dormant accounts of Taliban supporters have become active again.

The Taliban's resurgence

• US Withdrawal: The US withdrawal from Afghanistan left a security vacuum that the Taliban was quick to fill. The US-led coalition formally ended its combat mission in 2014, and the Afghan National Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF) were put in charge of the country's security. However, the ANDSF faced significant challenges in holding territory and defending population centers, leading to the Taliban's resurgence.
• Pakistan's Support: Pakistan has long been accused of supporting the Taliban and providing safe havens for the group. Pakistan's security establishment cheered the Taliban's military gains and has funneled support to the group for decades. The Taliban leadership has lived in exile in Pakistan and has been protected by the Pakistani army and its intelligence services.
• Regional Dynamics: Afghanistan's complex regional dynamics, including the involvement of countries such as India, Iran, and China, have also contributed to the Taliban's resurgence. Iran, for example, has become a patron of the Taliban, marking a historic reversal in its policy. China has also quietly expanded its influence in Afghanistan and has provided economic support to both Pakistan and the Taliban.
• Negotiations and Peace Deals: The US-Taliban peace negotiations and deals, such as the Doha Agreement, have been criticized for not including the Afghan government and for not resulting in a sustainable peace. The Taliban used the period of negotiations to regroup and launch new offensives.
• Internal Factors: The Taliban's effective use of guerrilla tactics, such as suicide bombings and targeted assassinations, as well as the group's ability to exploit local grievances and provide governance in areas under their control, have contributed to their resurgence. Additionally, the Taliban benefited from the weaknesses within the Afghan government, such as corruption and political infighting.

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