The Myth Of Monarchy: Afghanistan's Sultan-Less History

Afghanistan has a rich history, dating back to the Middle Paleolithic era. The country has been invaded by many empires, including the Persians, Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the Mongols, the British, the Soviet Union, and the US-led coalition.

Afghanistan's modern history began with the Durrani Empire in the 18th century, founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani, who is considered the Father of the Nation. However, Dost Mohammad Khan is sometimes regarded as the founder of the first modern Afghan state.

The Durrani Empire was succeeded by the Sadozai monarchy, which ruled the Afghan Durrani Empire and is considered the founding state of modern Afghanistan. The Sadozai monarchy was overthrown in 1823, when the Emirate of Afghanistan was established.

Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan has been plagued by extensive warfare, including coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars. The country has been ruled by various dynasties and empires, but there is no mention of sultans.

Afghanistan's history of invasions and empires

Afghanistan has a long history of invasions and empires. The country's strategic location along the historic Silk Road has led it to be described as the 'roundabout of the ancient world'.

• 500 BCE: Conquered by Darius I of Babylonia
• 329 BCE: Conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedonia
• 7th to 9th centuries: Conquered by Arab Muslims
• 11th century: Conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni, considered the greatest of Afghanistan's conquerors
• 13th century: Conquered by Genghis Khan
• 1700s: United as a single country
• 1823: Emirate of Afghanistan established
• 1838-1842, 1878-1880, 1919-1921: Series of British-Afghan Wars
• 1926: Independent Kingdom of Afghanistan established under Amanullah Khan
• 1973: Republic of Afghanistan established
• 1978: Communist revolution establishes a socialist state
• 1979: Soviet Union invades Afghanistan
• 1989: Soviet Union withdraws from Afghanistan
• 1996: Islamic fundamentalist Taliban control most of the country
• 2001: US-led coalition invades Afghanistan
• 2021: Taliban return to power

The Durrani Empire and the Sadozai monarchy

The Durrani Empire, also known as the Sadozai Kingdom, was founded in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani, a member of the Sadozai subclan of the Popalzai line of the Durranis. Ahmad Shah was chosen as the leader of the Afghans by a grand council of chiefs, despite being younger than other claimants. Ahmad Shah's first acts as chief included adopting the title "Durr-i-Durrani" ("pearl of pearls" or "pearl of the age"), and capturing Ghazni and Kabul from local rulers.

Under Ahmad Shah, the Durrani Empire spanned parts of Central Asia, the Iranian plateau, and the Indian subcontinent. At its peak, it ruled over present-day Afghanistan, much of Pakistan, parts of northeastern and southeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, and northwestern India. Ahmad Shah invaded India eight times, taking control of Kashmir, Punjab, and the city of Lahore. In 1757, he sacked Delhi, but allowed the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control of the city as long as the ruler acknowledged his suzerainty over Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir.

Ahmad Shah attempted to rally neighbouring Muslim khanates and the Kazakhs to attack China, which was expanding up to the western border of Kazakhstan. However, with his campaigns in India depleting the state treasury and stretching his troops thin, Ahmad Shah lacked the resources to do anything beyond sending envoys to Beijing for unsuccessful talks.

After Ahmad Shah's death in 1772, the Durrani Empire began to crumble. His son, Timur Shah, became the next ruler and moved the capital of the empire from Kandahar to Kabul, with Peshawar as its winter capital. However, the empire faced territorial losses to the Sikh Empire in the early 19th century. The Durrani dynasty was eventually deposed by the Barakzai dynasty in Kabul, leading to the establishment of the Emirate of Afghanistan.

The Durrani Empire is considered the foundational polity of the modern nation-state of Afghanistan, with Ahmad Shah Durrani being credited as its "Father of the Nation".

The Emirate of Afghanistan

During the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880), the British and Afghans signed the Treaty of Gandamak, which allowed the British to assume control of the Afghan territories within modern-day Pakistan as well as of Afghanistan's foreign affairs, on the condition that a subsidy be paid to the Afghans and the British military fully withdraw. Emir Amanullah Khan signed the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 following the Third Anglo-Afghan War, gaining full Afghan independence. In 1926, Amanullah Khan reformed the country as the Kingdom of Afghanistan, becoming its first King.

The Kingdom of Afghanistan

After 10 months, Amanullah Khan's Minister of War, Mohammed Nadir Shah, returned from exile in India. His armies ousted the Saqqawist government and reinstated the Kingdom. Nadir Shah was proclaimed King of Afghanistan in October 1929 and went on to revert the reformist path of Amanullah Khan. He was succeeded by his son, Mohammed Zahir Shah, whose rule started in 1933 and lasted for 39 years. Zahir Shah, the last King of Afghanistan, was eventually overthrown by his own cousin, Mohammed Daoud Khan, who successfully ended the centuries-old monarchy and established a republic.

During Zahir Shah's reign, the Afghan government sought relationships with the outside world, most notably with the Soviet Union, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In 1946, Afghanistan was admitted into the United Nations. In 1947, Afghanistan was the only United Nations member to vote against admitting Pakistan into the United Nations, due to its call for Pashtunistan.

Under Zahir Shah's rule, Afghanistan remained neutral during World War II and pursued a diplomatic policy of non-alignment. Afghanistan was also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement. Zahir Shah's cousin, Daoud Khan, who served as prime minister during his reign, worked hard for the development of modern industries and education in the country.

In July 1973, Daoud Khan staged a bloodless coup d'état while Zahir Shah was in Italy receiving eye surgery. The following month, Zahir Shah abdicated, hoping to avoid a civil war, which officially marked the end of the Kingdom of Afghanistan and the beginning of the Republic.

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan

The legislative branch of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was the National Assembly or Parliament, consisting of two houses: the House of People and the House of Elders. The National Assembly was the highest legislative organ and the manifestation of the will of the people of Afghanistan. The members of the National Assembly were responsible for legislation, supervising the government's performance, and representing their clients' demands and needs.

The executive branch of the government was comprised of 25 ministries, the Attorney General's Office, the Central Bank, the National Security Directorate, and other General and Independent Directorates and Entities, under the chairmanship of the President of Afghanistan.

The judiciary was an independent organ of the state, consisting of one Supreme Court in the centre, Courts of Appeal, and Primary Courts at the provincial and district levels. The Supreme Court was the highest judicial organ, with nine members appointed by the President and endorsed by the House of People.

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