The Complex Loyalties Of Louis Xvi: Austria's Potential Ally

Louis XVI was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. He was married to Archduchess Maria Antonia of Austria, later known as Queen Marie Antoinette. Louis XVI's reign was marked by attempts to reform the French government in accordance with Enlightenment ideas, but he faced opposition from the nobility. He also struggled with financial crises and growing unpopularity, which eventually led to the French Revolution. During this tumultuous period, there were concerns among the monarchs of Prussia and Austria that the revolutionary spirit would spread to their territories, threatening their rule. As a result, they decided to support Louis XVI by sending armed troops to curb the revolutionary fervour in France. However, despite their efforts, Louis XVI's reign ended tragically when he was arrested, tried, and executed by guillotine in 1793.

The French Revolution and the fall of the monarchy

The French Revolution, which took place between 1789 and 1799, was a period of political and societal upheaval in France. It began with the Estates-General of 1789 and ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire in November 1799, which brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power. The Revolution resulted from a combination of social, political, and economic factors that the monarchy proved unable to manage.

The Fall of the Monarchy

The monarchy's financial problems and the long-drawn-out wars of the eighteenth century had, for some time, caused the French government to spend much more than its annual revenue. This money was usually borrowed, but for reasons still debated by historians, this source of funds dried up in the 1780s. Mounting debt and high expenses forced the monarchy to seek fundamental financial reform. In 1787, the royal government proposed a series of major reforms concerning taxation and reducing expenditures. These proposals were met with fierce resistance from both a special Assembly of Notables and the King's own law courts, particularly the Parlement of Paris. These bodies stressed the need to return to the tradition of the Estates-General, a representative body that had not been convoked since 1614, but which was considered the only national body with the authority to enact fiscal reforms and new taxes.

Initially, the King resisted, but imminent bankruptcy forced Louis XVI to call the Estates-General in the fall of 1788. The representatives of the Third Estate, which represented 'the people', broke away and reconstituted themselves as a National Assembly in June 1789. The Storming of the Bastille in Paris on 14 July was followed by a series of radical measures by the Assembly, including the abolition of feudalism, state control over the Catholic Church, and a declaration of rights.

The next three years were dominated by the struggle for political control, and military defeats following the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in April 1792 led to an insurrection on 10 August. The monarchy was replaced by the French First Republic in September, and Louis XVI was executed in January 1793.

The National Assembly and the Estates General

The Estates General was a representative assembly of the three estates or orders of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), nobility (Second Estate), and commoners (Third Estate). The first Estates General met on April 10, 1302, to discuss a conflict between French King Philip IV and Pope Boniface VIII. The assembly stood by the king, and the meeting was followed by a nationwide survey.

The Estates General of 1789 was summoned by King Louis XVI to address the financial crisis in France. However, the assembly fell into squabbling over its structure. The Third Estate, which had been granted double representation, discovered that their votes would still be cast by power and not by head, thus rendering their increased numbers meaningless in terms of power. The Third Estate refused this and proceeded to meet separately, eventually inviting the other two estates to join them.

On June 17, 1789, the Third Estate, along with some members of the other estates, formed the National Assembly, signalling the outbreak of the French Revolution. The National Assembly existed until July 9, 1789, when it became a legislative body known as the National Constituent Assembly.

The National Assembly, formed by the representatives of the Third Estate, served as the French parliament during the early years of the Revolutionary period. The formation of the National Assembly marked the end of representation based on traditional social classes.

Louis XVI's indecisiveness and conservatism

Louis XVI's indecisiveness was evident in his unsuccessful flight to Varennes in 1791, which seemed to justify the rumours that he tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign intervention. This incident, along with his unsuccessful attempts at reform, led to a deterioration in his popularity and the perception of him as a symbol of the tyranny of the Ancien Régime.

Louis XVI's conservatism was also influenced by his instructors, who instilled in him a strong taste for religion and humanities. This, combined with his conservative upbringing, resulted in a king who focused primarily on religious freedom and foreign policy during his reign.

Louis XVI's conservatism was further demonstrated in his marriage to Archduchess Maria Antonia of Austria, a union that was met with hostility from the French public due to their dislike of the Austrian alliance. Despite his initial coldness towards his wife, Louis XVI eventually formed a close relationship with her, and they became the parents of four children.

Overall, Louis XVI's indecisiveness and conservatism were shaped by a combination of his instructors, his conservative upbringing, and his shy nature, which resulted in a king who struggled to adapt to the changing political landscape of Revolutionary France.

The Declaration of Pillnitz and the Brunswick Manifesto

The Declaration of Pillnitz was a joint statement issued on 27 August 1791 by Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia. It expressed their support for King Louis XVI of France, who had been reduced to a constitutional monarch during the French Revolution. The declaration called on other European powers to intervene and help restore Louis XVI's full powers, stating that the situation was a matter of common interest for all European sovereigns. However, the declaration was largely symbolic, as Austria and Prussia vowed to commit troops only if all major European powers intervened, which was highly unlikely. Leopold, who was the brother of Louis XVI's wife, Marie Antoinette, intentionally worded the proclamation to avoid war.

The French government interpreted the Declaration of Pillnitz as a threat to its sovereignty, leading to a series of provocations. In September 1791, the National Assembly annexed the papal territories of Avignon and the Comtat-Venaissin. Then, in February 1792, Austria and Prussia formed a defensive alliance. On 20 April 1792, France declared war on Austria, marking the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars.

The Brunswick Manifesto, issued on 25 July 1792, further escalated tensions. It was a proclamation by Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Allied army (mainly Austrian and Prussian). The manifesto threatened that if any harm came to the French royal family, the Allies would retaliate against French civilians and burn Paris to the ground. The Brunswick Manifesto was written primarily by Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé, a leader of French émigrés in Brunswick's army. It was intended to intimidate Paris into submission but instead fuelled the French Revolution. On 1 August, news of the manifesto swept through Paris, and many believed it was final proof that Louis XVI was collaborating with the Allies.

On 10 August 1792, the Tuileries Palace was stormed in a bloody battle, and the Swiss Guards protecting it were massacred. In late August and early September, the French suffered defeats in skirmishes with the Allied army. However, on 20 September, the French triumphed in the Battle of Valmy, leading to the withdrawal of the Prussian army from France.

The execution of Louis XVI

On 21 January 1793, Louis XVI, former King of France, was publicly executed in Paris during the French Revolution. This event is often viewed as a turning point in both French and European history.

Louis XVI's death marked the end of an unbroken thousand-year period of monarchy in France. However, it also symbolised the true beginning of democracy within the nation, inspiring various reactions around the world.

The Trial

Louis XVI was convicted of high treason in a near-unanimous vote by the National Convention. At his trial, which took place four days before his execution, no one voted "not guilty", although several deputies abstained. Ultimately, the former king was condemned to death by a simple majority.

The Execution

On the cold, foggy morning of his execution, Louis XVI made the hour-and-a-half journey through Paris from the Temple, a fortified medieval monastery where he had been imprisoned, to the Place de la Révolution, where the scaffold for his execution was assembled. He travelled in the mayor's coach, accompanied by his confessor, Henry Essex Edgeworth de Firmont, and Lieutenant Lebrasse.

The Paris Commune, the revolutionary municipal government, had stationed guards four deep along the coach's path, and the journey passed mostly in silence as Louis prayed. By 10 am, Louis’ coach arrived peacefully at the Place de la Révolution, where some twenty thousand people had gathered.

Upon arrival, Louis dismounted the carriage and removed his coat and collar. The executioners bound his hands, led him up the stairs, and cut his hair. Louis then addressed the crowd, proclaiming his innocence and expressing his hope that his blood would appease God's anger. At this point, the drums began to roll, and the rest of his final words were inaudible.

He was then strapped to a plank, guided through the guillotine's “widow's window”, and executed. The executioners showed Louis XVI's severed head to the cheering crowd, and gun salutes were fired.

Legacy

The execution of the king by his people was a transformative moment in European politics. Louis' death emboldened revolutionaries throughout France, who continued to radically alter the country's political and social structure in the following years.

Nine months after Louis' death, his wife, Marie Antoinette, was also executed at the guillotine in the same location in Paris.

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