France And Austria: A Historical Alliance

France and Austria have had a complex relationship, with both countries having diplomatic relations since the Middle Ages. The rivalry between the two nations has been characterised by shifting alliances and conflicts, often driven by the pursuit of supremacy in Europe. The French-Habsburg rivalry, which began in the 15th century, was a significant source of tension, with the Habsburgs ruling over expansive territories, including Austria, and France seeking to break free from their encirclement. This rivalry led to numerous conflicts, including the Italian Wars, the Thirty Years' War, and the War of the Spanish Succession. However, in the 18th century, a diplomatic revolution occurred, and France and Austria formed an alliance for the first time, marked by the marriage of Marie Antoinette and the future King Louis XVI. Despite this, tensions arose again during the French Revolution, with Austria seeking to crush the revolution and later facing multiple defeats at the hands of Napoleon's armies. In the 19th century, both countries continued to have a tumultuous relationship, with conflicts such as the Franco-Austrian War and the First and Second Coalition Wars. After World War I, France played a crucial role in ensuring Austria's independence and preventing its annexation by Germany. In the post-World War II era, France and Austria established cooperative relations, and Austria became a member of the European Union in 1995.

The French-Habsburg rivalry

Expansion of the Habsburg Empire

The Habsburgs, whose dominions consisted principally of Austria and later Spain, often sought alliances through marriage, allowing them to gain territories throughout Europe, including Burgundy, Milan, and the Low Countries. This expansion into western Europe led to increasing border tensions with the Kingdom of France, which found itself encircled by Habsburg territory.

The Italian Wars

The Italian Wars, a series of conflicts fought between 1494 and 1559, were a direct consequence of Italy's political division and economic advancement, making it a prime battleground for European supremacy. The main belligerents were France and the Habsburg dynasty, with the latter often allied with Spain. The French invasion of the Kingdom of Naples in 1494, based on a dynastic claim, was thwarted when the Republic of Venice formed an alliance with Habsburg Austria and Spain.

France's Fear of Encirclement

The marriage of Joanna of Castile and Philip the Handsome, the son of Mary of Burgundy and Archduke Maximilian, united the possessions of Castile, Aragon, Austria, and the Burgundian Netherlands under their son, Charles V. This placed France in an encircled position, with Habsburg territories to the north, south, and east.

The Thirty Years' War

The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was sparked by a conflict between the Protestant estates in Bohemia and their Catholic monarch, Ferdinand II, who was the heir to Austria. The war eventually escalated into a full-scale religious conflict, with France joining the Protestant North German states, despite being a Catholic nation itself. This intervention was driven by political motives, as France sought to prevent the Habsburgs from achieving hegemony over the German lands.

The Nine Years' War

The Nine Years' War (1688-1697), also known as the War of the Grand Alliance, was a conflict between Louis XIV of France and a European coalition that included Austria, the Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, Spain, England, and Savoy. It is sometimes considered the first global war, as it extended beyond Europe to North America and India.

The War of Spanish Succession

The death of the childless Charles II of Spain in 1700 led to the War of Spanish Succession, as King Louis XIV of France claimed the Spanish throne for his grandson, Philip V. This conflict resulted in the installation of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain and marked the end of the Habsburg encirclement of France.

The Diplomatic Revolution

In 1756, a significant reversal in French-Habsburg relations occurred, known as the Diplomatic Revolution. For the first time in over two centuries, France and Austria became allies through the marriage of Austrian princess Marie Antoinette to the Dauphin of France, who later became King Louis XVI. This alliance was formed due to a shift in interests between Austria and Britain, with Prussia's growing power posing a threat to Austria's position in Central Europe.

In summary, the French-Habsburg rivalry was a defining feature of European politics for centuries, shaping alliances, marriages, and conflicts. It was driven by France's fear of encirclement by Habsburg territories and their competition for influence and supremacy in Italy and Central Europe.

The Italian Wars

The second phase of the conflict originated in the rivalry between Florence and the Republic of Pisa, which had been annexed by Florence in 1406 but regained its independence during the French invasion of 1494. In 1498, Louis XII of France began planning another attempt on Milan, while also pursuing claims to the Kingdom of Naples. He signed a series of treaties with England, Burgundy, Aragon, and Venice, and in 1499, a French army invaded Lombardy. Louis made a triumphant entry into Milan in October 1499, and Florence asked for French assistance in retaking Pisa.

The third phase of the Italian Wars began in 1536, when pro-Valois elements in Asti expelled the Imperial garrison, and a French army occupied several towns in Piedmont. In response, a Spanish army invaded Provence and captured Aix before withdrawing. In 1537, the Ottoman Empire joined the conflict, raiding coastal areas around Naples and raising fears of invasion throughout Italy. The Truce of Nice, signed in 1538, halted hostilities for ten years and left France in possession of most of Savoy, Piedmont, and Artois.

The final phase of the Italian Wars began in 1542, when French armies attacked Perpignan on the Spanish border, as well as Artois, Flanders, and Luxembourg. Imperial resistance proved formidable, and in 1543, Henry VIII of England allied with Charles V and agreed to support his offensive in Flanders. In 1554, Philip II of Spain became king of England through his marriage to Mary I, and in 1556, Charles formally abdicated as Emperor, splitting his possessions between the Holy Roman Empire, which went to his brother Ferdinand I, and Spain, which went to his son Philip II. The Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, signed in 1559, brought the Italian Wars to an end.

The War of the Spanish Succession

The Disputed Succession

When Charles II of Spain died in November 1700, he did not leave any children to inherit his throne. This created a complex situation, as there were multiple potential heirs with strong claims to the Spanish throne. Charles's will named Philip of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV of France, as his heir. Philip was proclaimed king of Spain on November 16, 1700. However, Charles's decision was contested by Archduke Charles of Austria, who was supported by the Grand Alliance, which included Austria, the Dutch Republic, Great Britain, and other European powers.

The War

One of the key battles of the war was the Battle of Blenheim in August 1704, where the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy led the allied English, Dutch, and Austrian armies to a decisive victory over a Franco-Bavarian force. Despite this victory, the war continued for several more years, with both sides experiencing victories and defeats.

The Peace of Utrecht

By 1711, both sides were exhausted and sought peace. The death of Emperor Joseph I of Austria in 1711 changed the dynamics, as his brother, Archduke Charles, became the heir presumptive to the Holy Roman Empire. This made the prospect of Charles also inheriting the Spanish throne less appealing to the Allies. Peace negotiations began in 1711 and resulted in the Peace of Utrecht in 1713.

Under the terms of the treaty, Philip was confirmed as king of Spain, but he renounced his claim to the French throne, thereby averting a union of France and Spain. The Spanish Empire ceded territories in Italy and the Netherlands to Austria and Savoy, while Britain received Gibraltar, Menorca, and trade concessions in the Spanish Americas. The war concluded with the Treaty of Baden in 1714, bringing an end to the conflict that had shaped the European balance of power.

The Napoleonic Wars

The War of the Third Coalition (1803–1806)

The first stage of the war broke out when Britain declared war on France on 18 May 1803, alongside the Third Coalition. In December 1805, Napoleon defeated the allied Russo-Austrian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austria to make peace.

The War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807)

Concerned about increasing French power, Prussia led the creation of the Fourth Coalition, which resumed war in October 1806. Napoleon soon defeated the Prussians at Jena-Auerstedt and the Russians at Friedland, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. The treaty failed to end the tension, and war broke out again in 1809 with the Austrian-led Fifth Coalition.

The War of the Fifth Coalition (1809)

At first, the Austrians won a significant victory at Aspern-Essling but were quickly defeated at Wagram. Hoping to isolate and weaken Britain economically through his Continental System, Napoleon launched an invasion of Portugal, the only remaining British ally in continental Europe. After occupying Lisbon in November 1807, Napoleon seized the opportunity to turn against his former ally, depose the reigning Spanish royal family, and declare his brother King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and Portuguese revolted, with British support, and expelled the French from Iberia in 1814 after six years of fighting.

The Peninsular War and the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814)

Concurrently, Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, routinely violated the Continental System, prompting Napoleon to launch a massive invasion of Russia in 1812. The resulting campaign ended in disaster for France and the near-destruction of Napoleon's Grande Armée. Encouraged by the defeat, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia formed the Sixth Coalition and began a new campaign against France, decisively defeating Napoleon at Leipzig in October 1813. The Allies then invaded France from the east, while the Peninsular War spilled over into southwestern France. Coalition troops captured Paris at the end of March 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April and go into exile on the island of Elba.

The War of the Seventh Coalition and the Hundred Days (1815)

Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and reassumed control of France. The Allies formed the Seventh Coalition, which defeated him at Waterloo in June 1815, and exiled him to the island of Saint Helena, where he died six years later in 1821.

The Franco-Prussian War

The immediate cause of the war was the candidacy of Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen for the Spanish throne, which was viewed as a potential combination of Prussia and Spain against France. The Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, published the Ems Telegram, a misleading summary of a telegram sent by William I rejecting French demands that Prussia never again support a Hohenzollern candidacy. This inflamed public opinion in France, and on 19 July 1870, France declared war on Prussia.

The German coalition mobilised its troops more effectively than the French and invaded northeastern France on 4 August. The German forces were superior in numbers, training, leadership, and use of modern technology, particularly railways and artillery. A series of Prussian and German victories in eastern France, including the Siege of Metz and the Battle of Sedan, resulted in the capture of the French Emperor Napoleon III and the decisive defeat of the Second Empire.

A Government of National Defense was formed in Paris on 4 September, and the war continued for another five months. German forces fought and defeated new French armies in northern France and then besieged Paris, which fell on 28 January 1871, effectively ending the war.

The war had a significant impact on Europe, altering the balance of power on the continent. It led to the unification of German states under the German Empire, with William I of Prussia as emperor, and the end of imperial rule in France, bringing the first lasting republican government. The war also contributed to the birth of Revanchism in France, characterised by a deep sense of bitterness and a demand for the recovery of Alsace and Lorraine, annexed by Germany as part of the Treaty of Frankfurt.

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