Austria's Fateful March: Artillery Training Camp Encounter

The Austrian Armed Forces, also known as the Bundesheer, have a long and complex military history. One notable event is the Battle of Karánsebes in 1788, where different portions of the Austrian army fired on one another by mistake, causing self-inflicted casualties and disrupting their baggage train. Another significant conflict involving Austria is the Battle of Cer in 1914, which marked the beginning of World War I and resulted in thousands of casualties on both the Austro-Hungarian and Serbian sides. Additionally, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, also known as the Seven Weeks' War, significantly shifted power among German states towards Prussian hegemony and led to the abolition of the German Confederation.

The Austrian Armed Forces

The main constitutional tasks of the Austrian military are:

• To protect the constitutionally established institutions and the population's democratic freedoms
• To maintain order and security inside the country
• To render assistance in the case of natural catastrophes and disasters of exceptional magnitude

Historical Context

Austria's military history is closely tied to the broader history of Europe, with the country's armed forces playing a significant role in various conflicts over the centuries. Here is a brief overview of some key moments in the history of the Austrian military:

• World War I: Austria-Hungary was one of the central powers during World War I, with the Austrian military engaging in significant battles such as the Battle of Kolubara and the Battle of Cer against Serbia in 1914. These early battles resulted in heavy casualties for both sides.
• Interwar Period: Following World War I, the Austrian military underwent several changes. In 1918, the Republic of German-Austria established a military known as the Volkswehr ("People's Defence"). After the transition to the First Austrian Republic in 1920, the military's name was changed to the Bundesheer ("Federal Army"), which it has retained ever since.
• World War II: During World War II, Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in the Anschluss, and the Bundesheer was disbanded. Many Austrians served in the German Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS during the war. After World War II, Austria was occupied by the Allies and regained its independence in 1955, with a declaration of neutrality that has been maintained to the present.

The Austro-Prussian War

The war was part of the wider rivalry between Austria and Prussia and resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony. It resulted in the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by the unification of all of the northern German states in the North German Confederation, which excluded Austria and the other southern German states. The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian realm of Venetia.

The war erupted as a result of the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which the two had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The crisis started on 26 January 1866, when Prussia protested the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to permit the estates of the duchies to call up a united assembly, declaring the Austrian decision a breach of the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria replied on 7 February, asserting that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights in the duchies. In March 1866, Austria reinforced its troops along its frontier with Prussia. Prussia responded with a partial mobilisation of five divisions on 28 March.

The Prussian Minister President, Otto von Bismarck, made an alliance with Italy on 8 April, committing it to the war if Prussia entered one against Austria within three months. This was an obvious incentive for Bismarck to go to war with Austria within three months so that Italy would divert Austrian strength away from Prussia. Austria responded with a mobilisation of its Southern Army on the Italian border on 21 April. Italy called for a general mobilisation on 26 April, and Austria ordered its own general mobilisation the next day. Prussia's general mobilisation orders were signed in steps on 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 12 May.

When Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the German Diet on 1 June and also decided on 5 June to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June, Prussia declared that the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865 had thereby been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet responded by voting for a partial mobilisation against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army invaded Hanover, Saxony and the Electorate of Hesse on 15 June. Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June.

The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia. Prussian Chief of General Staff Helmuth von Moltke had planned meticulously for the war. He rapidly mobilised the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of Silesia. There, the Prussian armies, led nominally by King William I, converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz on 3 July. The Prussian Army of the Elbe advanced on the Austrian left wing, and the First Army on the centre, prematurely; they risked being counter-flanked on their own left. Victory therefore depended on the timely arrival of the Second Army on the left wing. This was achieved through the brilliant work of its Chief of Staff, Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal. Superior Prussian organisation and élan decided the battle against Austrian numerical superiority, and the victory was near total, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure.

An armistice between Prussia and Austria came into effect at noon on 22 July. A preliminary peace was signed on 26 July at Nikolsburg. Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main campaign. Hanover's army defeated Prussia at the Second Battle of Langensalza on 27 June 1866, but within a few days, they were forced to surrender by superior numbers. Prussian armies fought against Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and the Hessian states on the river Main, reaching Nuremberg and Frankfurt. The Bavarian fortress of Würzburg was shelled by Prussian artillery, but the garrison defended its position until armistice day.

The Austrians were more successful in their war with Italy, defeating the Italians on land at the Battle of Custoza on 24 June and on sea, at the Battle of Lissa on 20 July. However, Italy's "Hunters of the Alps" led by Garibaldi defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Bezzecca on 21 July, conquered the lower part of Trentino and moved towards Trento. The Prussian peace with Austria forced the Italian government to seek an armistice with Austria on 12 August. According to the Treaty of Vienna, signed on 12 October, Austria ceded Venetia to France, which, in turn, ceded it to Italy.

The Battle of Karánsebes

The army's vanguard, a contingent of hussars, crossed the Timiș River to scout for the presence of the Ottoman army. Finding no sign of the enemy, the hussars came across a group of Romanian locals who offered to sell them schnapps. Soon after, some infantry crossed the river and, upon seeing the party, demanded alcohol for themselves. The hussars refused, and the drunk infantry set up makeshift fortifications around the barrels. A heated argument broke out, and a shot was fired, sparking a conflict between the hussars and the infantry.

During the conflict, some Romanian infantry began shouting, "Turcii! Turcii!" ("Turks! Turks!"). Mistaking this for a warning of an imminent Ottoman attack, the hussars fled the scene, followed by most of the infantry. The army was made up of Austrians, Romanians, Serbs, Croats, Italians from Lombardy, and other minorities, many of whom could not understand each other. In their panic, one of these groups gave a false warning to the others, who promptly fled as well. Officers attempted to restore order by shouting, "Halt! Halt!", which was misheard by soldiers with no knowledge of German as "Allah! Allah!".

As the hussars fled through the camps, a corps commander, General of Artillery Colloredo, mistook them for an Ottoman cavalry charge and ordered artillery fire. The entire camp was awoken by the sound of battle, and the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II, demoralised by the incident, ordered the army to withdraw. Two days later, the Ottoman army arrived and easily captured Karánsebes, taking advantage of the chaos and self-inflicted casualties of the Austrian army.

The paucity of records on the incident may reflect an attempt by the Austrians to hide embarrassing details, but contemporary reports do suggest that some significant friendly fire incident took place. The traditional narrative of the battle is likely embellished, and it is difficult for scholars to draw reliable sources and evidence for a detailed account.

The Battle of Cer

On the night of 15 August, clashes erupted between the Serbian 1st Combined Division and Austro-Hungarian outposts on the slopes of Cer Mountain. By midnight, fierce fighting had broken out, and the Austro-Hungarians were driven back from the mountain. The next day, the Serbians seized the Divača Range and forced the Austro-Hungarians to retreat. As the battle progressed, the Serbs successfully prevented the 21st Infantry Division from linking with the 2nd Army in Šabac.

On 17 August, the Serbs attempted to retake Šabac but were repulsed. The 1st Combined Division attacked the villages of Trojan and Parlog and moved towards Kosanin Grad, while the Austro-Hungarians repulsed the Serbian 3rd Army, forcing it to manoeuvre a division to protect Valjevo. In the early hours of 18 August, the Austro-Hungarians launched another attack but were defeated by the Serbs at the Dobrava River. The Serbian 2nd Army's counter-offensive continued along Cer and Iverak, and the 1st Combined Division attacked Rašulijača.

On 19 August, the morale of the Austro-Hungarians collapsed, and thousands of soldiers retreated into Austria-Hungary, with many drowning in the Drina River. The Serbs defeated the Austro-Hungarians at Kosanin Grad and drove the 9th Infantry Division from its position. The Austro-Hungarians began retreating in increasing disorder, and the Serbs pursued them across the front. By 20 August, Austro-Hungarian forces were fleeing across the Drina River back into Bosnia, with the entire 5th Army forced across the river.

On 21 and 22 August, violent clashes occurred as Serb forces fought their way to the western approaches of Šabac. By 23 August, the Serbs had encircled the town and brought up their siege artillery. The Serbs entered Šabac on 24 August, discovering that the Austro-Hungarians had decamped the previous night. By 16:00, the Serbs reached the banks of the Sava River, bringing an end to the first Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia.

Both sides suffered heavy casualties. Austro-Hungarian casualties are estimated at 6,000–10,000 killed, 30,000 wounded, and 4,500 taken prisoner. Serbian casualties were 3,000–5,000 killed and 15,000 wounded. The Battle of Cer marked the first Allied victory over the Central Powers in World War I and also saw the first aerial dogfight of the war.

The Austrian-Hungarian Compromise

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich, established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, which was a military and diplomatic alliance of two sovereign states. The compromise put an end to the 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary, which Emperor Franz Joseph had instituted after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.

Under the Compromise, the lands of the House of Habsburg were reorganized as a real union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, with a single monarch reigning as Emperor of Austria in the Austrian half of the empire and as King of Hungary in the Kingdom of Hungary. The Austrian (Cisleithanian) and Hungarian (Transleithanian) states were governed by separate parliaments and prime ministers, and each treated the citizens of the other half as foreigners. The two countries conducted unified foreign and defence policies, with "common" ministries of foreign affairs, defence, and finance under the monarch's direct authority.

The Compromise only partially re-established the former pre-1848 sovereignty and status of the Kingdom of Hungary, separate from and no longer subject to the Austrian Empire. Hungarian political leaders had two main goals during the negotiations: to regain the traditional legal and political status of the Hungarian state and to restore the series of reform laws (the so-called April Laws) of the revolutionary parliament of 1848, which established modern civil and political rights and economic and societal reforms in Hungary. The April Laws (except those based on the 9th and 10th points) were restored by Franz Joseph, along with the old historic constitution of the Kingdom of Hungary.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise was the result of the need to reconcile with Hungary to save the Habsburg Empire and dynasty, which was on the verge of collapse after the Second Italian War of Independence and the Austro-Prussian War. It was arranged by Emperor Franz Joseph and Hungarian statesman Ferenc Deák, who advocated for a modified union under the Habsburgs, believing that Hungary benefited from continued union with wealthier, more industrialized Austria. The Compromise was ratified by the restored Diet of Hungary on 29 May 1867.

The resulting system was maintained until the dissolution of the dual monarchy after World War I. However, it caused deep and lasting cracks in Hungarian society, as it was seen by a large part of the population as a betrayal of Hungarian interests and the heritage of the 1848-49 War of Independence. The Compromise and its supporting liberal parliamentary parties also remained bitterly unpopular among ethnic Hungarian voters, causing long-lasting frustration for Hungarians.

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