Austria's Post-Napoleon Vision: States And Sovereignty

The Austrian Empire was established in 1804 by Francis II, the Holy Roman Emperor, and ruler of various Habsburg lands. This was done in response to Napoleon Bonaparte's imperialist tendencies, which threatened the existence of the Holy Roman Empire. The Austrian Empire was established to safeguard the imperial status of the Habsburg dynasty.

In 1805, Napoleon defeated the Austrians and Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz. In the aftermath, Francis ceded various possessions to the French Emperor and his allies. Napoleon continued his expansionist efforts, and his habit of winning battles. This led to the Austrian Empire losing more of its territories.

The Austrian Empire did not want to establish states after Napoleon was defeated. Instead, it wanted to regain its lost territories and power. In 1809, Austria spent three years reforming its army and sought another confrontation with France to avenge its defeats. Austria built the largest army in its history, but it was hampered by numerous factors, including the conscription of men from across the Austrian Empire, who did not enthusiastically support their Austrian rulers.

Austria's attempts to regain its power were unsuccessful, and it continued to lose territories to Napoleon. The Austrian army was defeated by Napoleon multiple times, and the Austrian Empire suffered heavy losses. Eventually, Napoleon was defeated, and the Congress of Vienna was held in 1814/1815 to reorganise the borders. However, the Austrian Empire still did not last long; it became the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1867.

The Austrian Empire's defeat at Austerlitz

The battle was the first engagement of the War of the Third Coalition. Napoleon's 68,000 troops defeated almost 90,000 Russians and Austrians under General Mikhail Kutuzov. The French army had been outnumbered, with Napoleon having around 72,000 men and 157 guns, while the Allies had about 85,000 soldiers and 318 guns. The battle resulted in around 24,000 casualties, with thousands more taken prisoner.

Napoleon deliberately weakened his right flank to encourage the Allies to attack. The Allies, in turn, wanted to cut Napoleon off from Vienna. The French troops were deployed below the Pratzen Heights, with the Allied plan being to attack Napoleon's right and cut him off from Vienna. The Allies' advanced guard began to skirmish towards Telnitz, while Napoleon was in the midst of his troops, giving the impression of a fire and a pitiful state. The Allied attack began at around 8 am, with the first lines attacking Telnitz, which was defended by the French 3rd Line Regiment. The battle then moved to Sokolnitz, which changed hands several times throughout the day.

Napoleon's plan was to allow the Allies to attack his right flank, before attacking the Allies' right and rear with most of his army. The key to the battlefield was the Pratzen Heights, which Napoleon knew the Allies would have to abandon if they wanted to attack his right flank. The French centre, led by Marshal Soult, would then launch a decisive assault on the Allied centre.

The battle began with the French army outnumbered, and Napoleon was not initially confident of victory. However, the arrival of Marshal Davout's III Corps from Vienna was crucial, plugging the gap left by Napoleon. The French troops advanced up the Pratzen Heights through a dense mist, which cleared to reveal thousands of troops, stunning the Russian soldiers and commanders on top of the heights. The French centre, led by Soult, then launched a decisive attack on the Allied centre, with the support of Davout's troops. The Allied centre was demolished, and the French swept through both flanks, routing the Allies.

The Allied disaster shook the will of Emperor Francis to resist Napoleon further, and an armistice was agreed upon immediately. The Treaty of Pressburg was signed on 26 December 1805, taking Austria out of the war and the Coalition. The treaty confirmed the Austrian loss of lands in Italy, Bavaria, and Germany, and imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs. Victory at Austerlitz also permitted the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, a collection of German states intended as a buffer zone between France and the eastern powers. The Confederation rendered the Holy Roman Empire useless, and it was dissolved in 1806.

The Treaty of Pressburg

The treaty also reiterated the French gains from previous treaties, such as Campo Formio and Lunéville. Venetia, Istria, and Dalmatia were incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy, which Napoleon had become king of earlier that year. The Austrian Empire did receive some compensation, annexing the Electorate of Salzburg, which had been under Habsburg rule since 1803. However, this territory would later come under French and then Bavarian rule before permanently returning to Austria.

The treaty imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs on the Austrian Empire, payable to France. It also allowed for the safe passage of fleeing Russian troops back to their homeland. Overall, the Treaty of Pressburg significantly weakened the Austrian Empire and reinforced French dominance in the region.

The Confederation of the Rhine

The formation of the Confederation of the Rhine was a result of French concerns over its "natural frontiers" and the desire of a "third Germany" to free itself from the hegemony of its larger Germanic neighbours, Austria and Prussia. The Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II, took the title of Emperor of Austria in 1804 to counter the loss of prestige and safeguard his dynasty's imperial status as he foresaw the end of the Holy Roman Empire or the accession of Napoleon as Holy Roman Emperor.

The Austrian Empire's defeat at Wagram

The Austrian army, led by Archduke Charles, was positioned on the Marchfeld plain, north of Vienna. Napoleon's army crossed the Danube during the night of 4 July and attacked the Austrians with 172,000 troops. Despite the Austrians' strong defensive position, Napoleon attempted an early breakthrough with a series of evening attacks. The defenders regained the upper hand, and the next day, Archduke Charles launched a series of attacks along the entire battle line. However, Napoleon countered with a cavalry charge and managed to stabilise his left flank. He then launched an offensive along the entire line, and towards mid-afternoon, Charles admitted defeat and led a retreat.

The defeat shattered the morale of the Austrians, and the resulting Treaty of Schönbrunn meant the loss of one-sixth of the Austrian Empire's subjects and territories, rendering it landlocked until the German Campaign of 1813.

The Treaty of Schönbrunn

During the Peninsular War and the Spanish resistance against Napoleon, Austria had tried to reverse the 1805 Peace of Pressburg by sparking national uprisings in the French-occupied territories of Central Europe. These attempts ultimately failed, and French forces occupied Vienna in May 1809. The Austrians, under Archduke Charles, were able to repulse them at the Battle of Aspern on 21-22 May. However, Napoleon withdrew his forces and crushed Charles' army at Wagram a few weeks later. The archduke had to sign the Armistice of Znaim on 12 July.

The treaty imposed harsh peace terms on Austria. Austria had to cede the Duchy of Salzburg to Bavaria and lost its access to the Adriatic Sea by waiving the Littoral territories of Gorizia and Gradisca and the Imperial Free City of Trieste, together with Carniola, the March of Istria, western ("Upper") Carinthia with East Tyrol, and the Croatian lands southwest of the river Sava to the French Empire. West Galicia was ceded to the Duchy of Warsaw, and the Tarnopol district to the Russian Empire.

Austria also recognised Napoleon's previous conquests from other nations, as well as the rule of his brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. Austria paid a large indemnity to France, and the Austrian army was reduced to 150,000 men—a promise that was not fulfilled. The Graz Schlossberg fortress, whose garrison had firmly resisted the French occupation forces, was largely demolished.

Austria also had to apply Napoleon's Continental System, as Britain remained at war with France. One contemporary British view of the treaty was:

> This Treaty is certainly one of the most singular documents in the annals of diplomacy. We see a Christian King, calling himself the father of his people, disposing of 400,000 of his subjects, like swine in a market. We see a great and powerful Prince condescending to treat with his adversary for the brushwood of his own forests. We see the hereditary claimant of the Imperial Sceptre of Germany not only condescending to the past innovations on his own dominions but assenting to any future alterations which the caprice or tyranny of his enemy may dictate with respect to his allies in Spain and Portugal, or to his neighbours in Italy.

Although considerably weakened, Austria remained a European great power. Emperor Francis I approached the French by marrying his daughter Marie Louise off to Napoleon in 1810. As a result of Metternich's change of policies, the Austrian forces joined the French invasion of Russia in 1812.

Frequently asked questions