Austria's Support For Germany: The Complex Relationship

Austria was part of Nazi Germany from 13 March 1938 until 27 April 1945, when Allied-occupied Austria declared independence. This annexation was known as the Anschluss and was seen as a reunification. The majority of Austrians supported the Anschluss, and many Austrians participated in the Nazi administration, from death camp personnel to senior Nazi leadership. During World War II, 950,000 Austrians fought for the Nazi German armed forces, and thousands more served in the SS, the elite military corps of the Nazi Party. After the war, Austria sought to distance itself from its involvement with Nazi Germany, and the myth of Austria as the first victim of the Nazis took hold.

The Anschluss

The idea of a unified Austria and Germany, forming a "Greater Germany," had existed since the 1871 unification of Germany, from which Austria was excluded. The proposal gained support after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, and by the 1920s, it had strong backing in both countries, particularly among Austrian citizens of the political left and center. However, popular support for unification gradually faded over time.

After Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany in 1933, the desire for unification became associated with the Nazis, who saw it as an integral part of their "Heim ins Reich" concept, aiming to incorporate as many ethnic Germans as possible into a "Greater Germany." Despite the Austrian government's opposition to unification, Nazi Germany cultivated pro-unification tendencies in Austria and sought to undermine the Austrian regime. In July 1934, Austrian and German Nazis attempted a coup, which ultimately failed. An authoritarian right-wing government then took power in Austria, keeping about half of the population from voicing dissent.

In February 1938, Hitler invited the Austrian chancellor, Kurt von Schuschnigg, to Germany and forced him to agree to demands that gave Austrian Nazis a free hand. Schuschnigg later announced a plebiscite on the issue of Austrian independence, scheduled for March 13, 1938. Hitler responded by mobilizing the 8th Army and issuing ultimatums, demanding that Schuschnigg cancel the plebiscite, resign, and appoint Arthur Seyss-Inquart as the new chancellor. Faced with these demands, Schuschnigg resigned, and on March 12, German troops crossed the border into Austria, encountering no armed resistance.

On March 13, 1938, Seyss-Inquart, who had been appointed chancellor, signed the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law, formally incorporating Austria into Nazi Germany. A referendum to ratify the annexation was held on April 10, preceded by a major propaganda campaign, resulting in an official approval of 99.7% in Austria and 99.08% in Germany. However, this referendum excluded about 8% of Austrian voters, including Jews and political opponents of the Nazis.

Austria's role in the Holocaust

Austria played a significant role in the Holocaust, both as a perpetrator and as a victim. Here is a detailed overview:

The Annexation of Austria

In the lead-up to World War II, Austria experienced a period of economic stagnation, political dictatorship, and intense Nazi propaganda. On March 12, 1938, German troops entered Austria and received enthusiastic support from most Austrians. The country was incorporated into Nazi Germany the very next day, in what became known as the "Anschluss." This annexation was retroactively approved in a manipulated plebiscite, claiming that about 99% of Austrians supported the union. However, Jews and Roma were not allowed to vote.

Persecution and Violence

The annexation was immediately followed by the persecution and violence against Jews. German racial laws were enacted, disenfranchising Jews and restricting their rights. They were banned from public transport, forced to perform humiliating tasks, and subjected to public humiliation. The Kristallnacht pogroms in November 1938 were particularly brutal in Austria, with synagogues destroyed and Jewish businesses vandalised.

Plunder of Jewish Property

There was a systematic plunder of Jewish property, including homes, businesses, real estate, financial assets, and artworks. This was facilitated by various organisations, including the Gestapo and auction houses. The transfer of ownership from Jews to non-Jews was well-organised and profitable for those involved.

Concentration Camps and Deportations

The first Austrian concentration camp, Mauthausen, was established in 1938. This camp became the main Nazi camp in Austria, with a harsh regime that led to the deaths of thousands of prisoners. Subcamps under Mauthausen were also established near armaments factories, utilising forced labour for production.

The deportation of Austrian Jews to death camps began in February 1941, with the Viennese community officially liquidated in November 1942. By this time, only about 7,000 Jews remained in Austria, with most having fled or been deported. The deportation continued until March 1945.

Austrian Perpetrators and Collaborators

Many Austrians actively participated in the Holocaust. About 700,000 Austrians, or 10% of the population, joined the Nazi Party. Over 1.3 million Austrians were drafted into the Wehrmacht between 1938 and 1945, and 150,000 served in the Waffen-SS, an elite Nazi military unit. Austrians served loyally as soldiers and were complicit in Nazi atrocities on the Eastern Front.

Austrian Resistance and Victims

While many Austrians supported the Nazis, there was also an Austrian resistance movement, albeit small. Both left-wing and conservative resistance groups existed, and tens of thousands of Austrians were arrested for political reasons during the war. Additionally, Austria had a significant Jewish population before the war, with about 192,000 Jews in 1938, mostly in Vienna. As a result of the Holocaust, an estimated 60,000-65,000 Austrian Jews lost their lives, with very few surviving until liberation.

Post-War Austria

After the war, there was a debate about Austria's role during the Holocaust. Initially, Austrian society often portrayed itself as the "first victim" of Nazi Germany, denying its active support for the regime. However, this narrative was later challenged, and Austria acknowledged its responsibility and began efforts to educate about the Holocaust.

Austrian resistance to Nazism

One notable resistance group was led by the priest Heinrich Maier. This group sought to re-establish a Habsburg monarchy after the war and played a significant role in providing the Allies with information on the production sites of V-1 and V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks, and aircraft. They also maintained contact with Allen Dulles, head of the U.S. OSS in Switzerland, and their intelligence contributed to key operations such as Operation Crossbow and Operation Hydra, which were precursors to Operation Overlord. The Maier group was also one of the earliest to report the mass murder of Jews, utilising contacts at the Semperit factory near Auschwitz.

In addition to armed resistance, numerous individuals provided support to Jewish families during the Holocaust, risking imprisonment or death. These efforts included hiding individuals, managing or exchanging their property, and aiding their escape from Nazi persecution. Among these individuals were Rosa and Anton Stallbaumer, who were arrested by the Gestapo in 1942 and sent to concentration camps. Anton survived, but Rosa died at Auschwitz at the age of 44.

Another form of resistance came from religious groups, particularly the Catholic Church. The Nazis implemented anti-religious and anti-Austrian-patriotic measures, which led to resistance from many established religious groups, including priests, chaplains, and bishops. However, this resistance was challenging due to the organisational cohesion offence, which made it difficult to maintain cohesion within the groups. Despite the risks, these religious groups provided crucial counter-Nazi leaflets, collected donations for affected families, and provided intelligence to the Allies.

Overall, the Austrian resistance to Nazism was diverse and courageous, and their efforts helped to save lives and contributed to the Allied victory.

Soviet occupation of Austria

Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938, an event known as the Anschluss, and was part of Nazi Germany until 1945. The annexation was met with the overwhelming support of the Austrian population. In 1945, the Allies entered Austria and removed the country from the Third Reich. A provisional Austrian government, led by Karl Renner, declared the country's independence from Nazi Germany.

The Soviet Occupation of Austria began in 1945, as troops from the 3rd and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts approached Austria's border from Hungary. The Red Army suffered heavy losses in Hungary, with around 1 million troops at the time suffering 484,300 casualties, including 140,000 killed or captured. The Red Army regrouped and invaded Austria, capturing Vienna and advancing towards Linz and Graz in early May.

The Soviet occupation policies in Austria were shaped by the Moscow Declaration of 1943, in which the British, Americans, and Soviets proclaimed that Austria was the first victim of Nazi Germany. The Declaration stated that Austria would emerge as an independent state after the war, which it did on April 27, 1945. The Red Army occupied only parts of Austria, including the capital, while Anglo-American troops entered from Germany and Italy. Austria was then divided into four occupation zones by France, Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union.

Although Moscow treated Austria as a defeated Axis power, it maintained that Austria was a victim of Germany and therefore avoided some of the harshest consequences of defeat. Austria did not lose any territory, and Austrians were not expelled or deported to the Soviet Union for slave labor, as was the fate of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe. Additionally, the Western Allies opposed the Kremlin's plans to impose heavy war reparations on Austria.

However, Moscow demanded entitlement to German assets in Austria within its zone of occupation, resulting in Austria paying more than five times what Stalin initially demanded. Local governments were responsible for feeding and clothing the Red Army, which was a significant burden. Moscow also deployed NKVD (Soviet secret police) teams to extract reparations through the seizure of industrial plants and production installations.

In terms of political violence, the Soviet repressive apparatus acted with relative restraint, as Moscow did not fully control Austria and it was not a high priority for the Kremlin. Soviet commanders issued orders discouraging criminal conduct towards Austrian civilians, and the tone of Soviet propaganda changed to differentiate ordinary Germans and Austrians from the Nazis. However, widespread looting and sexual assaults were committed by Soviet troops, particularly in Vienna, where it is estimated that between 70,000 and 100,000 women were raped.

The number of Soviet troops in Austria gradually decreased, and the occupation ended in 1955 when the last occupation troops left the country. Austria pledged to remain neutral in the Cold War confrontation between the Soviet Union and the West, and it was agreed that Austria would never seek to unify with other German-speaking nations.

Austria's post-war independence

The End of World War II and the Beginning of Occupation

On April 27, 1945, with the fall of the Third Reich, Austria under Allied control declared independence from Germany. This marked the official end of the seven-year annexation (known as the "Anschluss") of Austria into Nazi Germany. The Allies, recognising the role Austrians played in Nazi crimes, began occupying the country. The occupation was divided into four zones, with the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the United States, and France each taking control of a zone. Vienna, the capital, was also subdivided, with the central district being collectively administered by all four powers.

The Moscow Declaration of 1943

Even before the end of World War II, the Allies had agreed during the 1943 Moscow Conference that the German annexation of Austria would be considered "null and void." This declaration, made by the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom, set the stage for treating Austria as a victim of Nazi aggression and a liberated and independent country after the war. This was a significant shift from the general recognition of Austria as part of Nazi Germany following the Anschluss in 1938.

The Early Years of Occupation and the Soviet Influence

During the early years of the occupation, the Soviet Union played a significant role in shaping the future of Austria. Soviet commander Fyodor Tolbukhin's troops crossed the former Austrian border in March 1945, and in April, the Soviets instructed Austrian politician Karl Renner to form a provisional government. Renner's cabinet took office on April 27, declaring independence from Nazi Germany and calling for the creation of a democratic state. The Soviets accepted Renner, and their officers re-established district administrations and appointed local mayors, often following the advice of locals. However, the Western Allies suspected the establishment of a puppet state and refused to recognise Renner's government.

The Cold War and the Austrian State Treaty

With the onset of the Cold War, Austria's status became a controversial subject. The country remained under joint occupation by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union until 1955. The first attempts to negotiate a treaty for Austrian independence failed due to the Allies' focus on securing a peace treaty with Germany first. The development of the Cold War further diminished the likelihood of a treaty. However, a breakthrough occurred in 1955 with the warming of relations during the Khrushchev Thaw.

The Austrian State Treaty and Full Independence

Austria's promises of perpetual neutrality paved the way for full independence. On May 15, 1955, the Austrian State Treaty was signed in Vienna by the Allied occupying powers (France, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union) and the Austrian government. This treaty, officially coming into force on July 27, 1955, established Austria as a sovereign and democratic state. The last occupation troops left on October 25, 1955, marking the end of the occupation and the restoration of Austria's independence.

Frequently asked questions