How Austria Became Yugoslavia: A Historical Perspective

Austria and Yugoslavia were two separate countries created after the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918. The First Austrian Republic was a successor state to the empire, while Yugoslavia was formed after the unification of the pre-World War I Kingdom of Serbia with the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs (former South Slavic parts of Austria-Hungary). Both countries had a tumultuous history during the interwar period, marked by conflicts and shifting alliances. During World War II, Austria was under National Socialism and was a part of Nazi Germany, while Yugoslavia was occupied by Axis powers and engaged in a prolonged guerrilla liberation war. In the post-war period, both countries collaborated closely in the context of the Cold War, with Austria maintaining its neutrality and Yugoslavia adopting a non-aligned stance. Despite their historical connections and collaborations, Austria did not become a part of Yugoslavia. Instead, they remained separate entities with distinct histories and trajectories.

Austria-Hungary's dissolution in 1918

The dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918 was a significant political event that occurred due to various reasons. Firstly, the growth of internal social contradictions and the separation of different parts of the empire contributed to its dissolution. Additionally, World War I, the 1918 crop failure, starvation, and the economic crisis further weakened the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The gap between Hungarian and Austrian interests widened over time, and the empire was also affected by a history of chronic overcommitment.

The Wilsonian peace pronouncements from January 1918 encouraged socialism and nationalism among the peoples of the Habsburg monarchy. The Austro-Hungarian government proposed a general peace conference, but this was rejected by the United States, citing the Wilsonian pronouncements (the Fourteen Points). Following Bulgaria's collapse, Austria-Hungary appealed for an armistice based on these points but was denied, as the U.S. committed to supporting the Czechoslovaks and Yugoslavs, who sought more than just "autonomy."

On October 16, 1918, Emperor Charles granted autonomy to the peoples of the Austrian Empire, but this concession was ignored internationally. The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy accelerated, with the establishment of independent states by Czechoslovaks in Prague and South Slavs in Zagreb. On October 24, a Hungarian National Council was set up in Budapest, advocating for peace and separation from Austria. The Croatian Slavs in Zagreb declared their independence on October 29, intending to unite with Serbia and Montenegro to form a large South Slav state.

The armistice between the Allies and Austria-Hungary was signed on November 3, 1918, and became effective on November 4. Per its terms, Austria-Hungary was required to evacuate occupied territories and specific regions, expel German forces, and allow the Allies free use of their internal communications and warships. Emperor Charles renounced his right to participate in Austrian and Hungarian affairs of government on November 11 and 13, respectively, marking the end of Habsburg rule.

The Kingdom of Yugoslavia

The state was ruled by the Serbian dynasty of Karađorđević, which previously ruled the Kingdom of Serbia under Peter I from 1903. Peter I became the first king of Yugoslavia until his death in 1921. He was succeeded by his son Alexander I, who had been regent for his father and was known as "Alexander the Unifier". Alexander officially changed the name of the state to "Kingdom of Yugoslavia" in 1929.

The creation of the state was supported by pan-Slavists and Yugoslav nationalists. For the pan-Slavic movement, all of the South Slav (Yugoslav) people had united into a single state. The creation was also supported by the Allies, who sought to break up the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Austria's relations with Nazi Germany

Austria was part of Nazi Germany from 13 March 1938 until 27 April 1945, when Allied-occupied Austria declared independence. This unification of the two countries is known as the Anschluss.

The unification was the result of a prolonged period of economic stagnation, political dictatorship, and intense Nazi propaganda inside Austria. The Nazis' expansionist foreign policy, which aimed to unite all Germans in a Nazi empire, was a key factor in the annexation of Austria. Adolf Hitler, himself an Austrian, had expressed his desire for an Austro-German union in his earliest writings and speeches.

The Anschluss was widely popular in both Germany and Austria. German troops entering Austria in 1938 received the enthusiastic support of most of the population. Throughout World War II, 950,000 Austrians fought for the Nazi German armed forces, and many others participated in the Nazi administration, from death camp personnel to senior Nazi leadership. The majority of the bureaucrats who implemented the Final Solution were Austrian.

The unification of Austria and Nazi Germany had a devastating impact on Austria's Jewish population, which stood at about 192,000 in 1938, representing almost 4% of the total population. The Anschluss resulted in an outburst of public violence against Jews, who were subjected to discriminatory laws, forced labour, and mass deportations. By December 1939, the Jewish population in Vienna had been reduced to just 57,000, primarily due to emigration.

The annexation of Austria was the first act of territorial aggression and expansion by Nazi Germany, violating the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which expressly forbade the unification of the two countries. The international community's failure to intervene or punish the Nazis for these violations set a precedent for appeasement and allowed Hitler to continue his expansionary policies unchecked.

Yugoslavia's liberation from German rule

Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers on April 6, 1941, marking the beginning of World War II in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The country was swiftly conquered and partitioned among Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, and their client regimes. The Yugoslav Partisans, led by communist revolutionary Josip Broz Tito, launched a guerrilla liberation war against the Axis forces and their locally established puppet regimes. This conflict was dubbed the National Liberation War and Socialist Revolution in post-war Yugoslav communist historiography.

The Partisans were a communist-led movement propagating pan-Yugoslav tolerance and incorporating republican, left-wing, and liberal elements of Yugoslav politics. They enjoyed the support of the Soviet Union and gradually gained recognition from the Western Allies, who provided logistical and air power support. The Partisans eventually gained control of the entire country and established the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The conflict in Yugoslavia had a high death toll, with estimates ranging from 867,000 to 1.2 million people killed, about half of whom were civilians. Genocide and ethnic cleansing were carried out by the Axis forces, particularly the Wehrmacht, and their collaborators, including the Ustaše and Chetniks. The Partisans also carried out reprisal actions, which became more frequent towards the end of the war and continued afterward as they sought to consolidate their power.

The liberation of Yugoslavia from German rule was a prolonged and complex process involving multiple actors and resulting in significant civilian casualties. The Axis invasion and occupation, the Partisan-led resistance, and the collaboration of certain groups with the occupiers all contributed to the country's struggle for liberation.

The Yugoslav Crisis

The roots of the crisis can be traced back to the 1980s when Yugoslavia experienced a period of political and economic instability. Following the death of Josip Broz Tito in 1980, the system of federal government weakened, and rising economic and political challenges went unaddressed. This power vacuum created an opportunity for nationalist sentiments to flourish, and ethnic tensions between different groups intensified. The country was further destabilized by external forces, particularly Germany, which sought to recolonize the region and encouraged separatism among the northern republics.

The crisis escalated in the early 1990s with the rise of Slobodan Milošević, who exploited these nationalist sentiments to gain power in Serbia. Milošević's agenda of centralization and Serb dominance was opposed by the western republics, particularly Slovenia and Croatia, which sought greater autonomy and eventually independence. The League of Communists of Yugoslavia dissolved in January 1990, and multi-party elections in 1990 saw the socialists lose power to ethnic separatist parties in most republics except Serbia and Montenegro.

In 1991, Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence, which was met with resistance from the Yugoslav federal government and the Serb-dominated Yugoslav People's Army (JNA). This led to a brief Ten-Day War in Slovenia and a longer and more devastating Croatian War of Independence. The JNA, increasingly influenced by Milošević, sought to preserve Yugoslav unity by force, resulting in violent conflicts with Croat forces and Serb paramilitaries.

Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of independence in 1992 further fueled the crisis, with the country becoming engulfed in a bloody territorial conflict between Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats. The war in Bosnia was marked by atrocities, including the Srebrenica genocide, and resulted in massive refugee crises and economic devastation in the region.

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