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On the 11th of March 1938, German troops invaded Austria, and the country was annexed to Germany the following day. This event is known as the Anschluss, which is German for 'joining' or 'connection'. The idea of a union between Austria and Germany was not new, and had been a topic of debate since the 19th century. The Anschluss was the first act of territorial expansion by Nazi Germany, and was widely popular in both countries. However, the international community did not intervene to stop the Anschluss, which allowed Hitler to continue his expansionary policies unchecked.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| --- | --- |
| Date of Anschluss | 13 March 1938 |
| Date of Independence | 27 April 1945 |
| Treaty of Versailles | 1919 |
| Treaty of Saint-Germain | 1919 |
| Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye | 1938 |
| Berchtesgaden Agreement | 1938 |
| Plebiscite | 13 March 1938 |
| Plebiscite | 10 April 1938 |
| Nazi Propaganda | 99.73% |
| Nazi Propaganda | 99.08% |
What You'll Learn
The Anschluss
The idea of a union between Austria and Germany was not new. The unification of Germany in 1871 had excluded Austria, and the new Republic of German-Austria attempted to form a union with Germany after the Austro-Hungarian Empire fell in 1918. However, the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Versailles forbade both the union and the continued use of the name 'German-Austria'.
The idea of the Anschluss gained support in the 1920s, particularly among Austrian citizens of the political left and centre. The support came from the belief that Austria, stripped of its imperial land, was not viable economically. The Nazis also supported the idea of the Anschluss as it was an integral part of their "Heim ins Reich" ("back home to the realm") concept, which sought to incorporate as many ethnic Germans as possible into a "Greater Germany".
In 1933, when Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany, the desire for unification could be identified with the Nazis. During an attempted coup in 1934, Austrian chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss was assassinated by Austrian Nazis. The defeat of the coup prompted many leading Austrian Nazis to go into exile in Germany, where they continued their efforts to unify the two countries.
In early 1938, Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced that there would be a referendum on a possible union with Germany. Portraying this as defying the popular will in Austria and Germany, Hitler threatened an invasion and secretly pressured Schuschnigg to resign. A day before the planned referendum, the German Army crossed the border into Austria on 12 March, unopposed by the Austrian military. A plebiscite was held on 10 April, in which the ballot was not secret, and threats and coercion were employed to manipulate the vote, resulting in 99.7% approval for the Anschluss.
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The Nazi German regime's first act of territorial aggression and expansion
The Anschluss was the culmination of years of Nazi German expansionist foreign policy. In 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany and immediately began to consolidate power. Hitler and the Nazis wanted to redraw the map of post-World War I Europe, considering the international borders unfair and illegitimate. They claimed that Germans had been denied the right of self-determination.
Hitler expressed his desire for an Austro-German union in his earliest writings and speeches. In 1931, the bulk of Austrian Nazis recognized Hitler as their leader. Hitler, in turn, appointed a German Nazi to bring the Austrian party in line. Austrian Nazis gained supporters as Hitler's popularity in Germany increased.
Hitler planned to achieve power in Austria through the Austrian Nazi Party. In February 1938, Hitler met with Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg and threatened to invade Austria. Hitler forced Schuschnigg to implement a range of measures favourable to Austrian Nazism. Schuschnigg attempted to assert Austrian independence by calling a plebiscite on the issue. Hitler responded by mobilizing the 8th Army for the planned invasion.
On March 11, 1938, Hitler gave the Austrian government a series of ultimatums: Chancellor Schuschnigg must call off the plebiscite, Schuschnigg must resign as chancellor, and Austrian president Wilhelm Miklas must appoint Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart as the new Austrian chancellor. If these demands were not met, the German military would invade Austria. Schuschnigg gave in. That evening, Austrian radio announced the cancellation of the plebiscite on Austrian independence.
On March 12, German troops crossed the Austrian border. On March 13, Austrian Nazi Chancellor Seyss-Inquart signed the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law. The law formally incorporated Austria into Nazi Germany. Austria was now a province of Nazi Germany.
The Anschluss was widely popular in both Germany and Austria. However, it resulted in an outburst of public violence against Austria's Jewish population.
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The annexation of Austria
The Rise of the Austrian Nazi Party
In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the Austrian Nazi Party was weak, divided, and ineffective. However, by 1931, the bulk of Austrian Nazis recognised Hitler as their leader. In 1933, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, and his popularity in Germany increased support for the Austrian Nazi Party. Austrian politics at the time was characterised by infighting and political violence.
The Dollfuss Dictatorship
In 1933, Engelbert Dollfuss became Chancellor of Austria and transformed the country from a democratic republic into a right-wing authoritarian regime. Dollfuss's government was diplomatically aligned with Fascist Italy and authoritarian Hungary. In 1934, Austrian Nazis attempted to overthrow the Austrian government. Although the coup failed, it resulted in the death of Dollfuss. Kurt Schuschnigg, Dollfuss' successor, continued many of his predecessor's authoritarian policies.
The Berchtesgaden Agreement
In February 1938, Schuschnigg met with Hitler, who demanded that Austria coordinate its foreign and military policies with Germany, appoint Austrian Nazis to positions of power, and release imprisoned Austrian Nazis. Schuschnigg agreed to these demands, but in March 1938, he called a plebiscite on Austrian independence. Hitler responded by mobilising the 8th Army for the planned invasion of Austria. Schuschnigg resigned on 11 March 1938, and Arthur Seyss-Inquart, a prominent Austrian Nazi, was appointed Chancellor.
On 12 March 1938, German troops crossed the Austrian border. They were greeted by cheering Austrians with Nazi salutes, Nazi flags, and flowers. Hitler rode into his birthplace, Braunau am Inn, with a 4,000-man bodyguard. On 13 March 1938, Seyss-Inquart announced the abrogation of Article 88 of the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which prohibited the unification of Austria and Germany. The seizure of Austria demonstrated Hitler's aggressive territorial ambitions and the failure of the British and French to take action against him.
The Impact of the Annexation
The Anschluss was not inevitable, nor was the rapid Nazification of Austria. However, certain historical factors and events facilitated these processes. The Anschluss was widely popular in both Germany and Austria, and many Austrians participated enthusiastically in the Nazification of their country. Austrians also fought in World War II and participated in the mass murder of Europe's Jews.
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The plebiscite
However, the plebiscite never took place. On 11 March 1938, the day before the plebiscite was to be held, Schuschnigg gave in to pressure from Hitler and resigned. In his resignation address, under coercion from the Nazis, he pleaded with Austrian forces not to resist a German "advance" into the country. The next day, on 12 March 1938, Hitler accompanied German troops into Austria, where they were met with enthusiastic crowds. Hitler appointed a new Nazi government, and on 13 March the Anschluss was proclaimed.
On 10 April 1938, a plebiscite was held to ratify the annexation. The plebiscite was preceded by a major propaganda campaign. The Nazis celebrated the Anschluss as the fulfillment of the German people's destiny. The plebiscite was subject to large-scale Nazi propaganda and to the abrogation of the voting rights of around 360,000 people (8% of the eligible voting population), mainly political enemies such as former members of left-wing parties and Austrian citizens of Jewish or Romani origin. The plebiscite was not a secret ballot, and threats and coercion were employed to manipulate the vote. The result was 99.7% approval for the Anschluss.
While the population's true opinions are unknown, it has been estimated that about 70% of Austrians would have voted to preserve Austrian independence. It has also been estimated that no more than one-third of Austrians ever fully supported Nazism during the existence of Nazi Germany.
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The referendum
Hitler was infuriated by the plebiscite and decided to take action. On 11 March, he gave Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg an ultimatum: cancel the plebiscite, resign, and appoint Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart as the new chancellor. Schuschnigg gave in to Hitler's demands and resigned on the evening of 11 March.
Hitler's plan was for Seyss-Inquart to call for German troops to rush to Austria's aid, restoring order and giving the invasion an air of legitimacy. However, the new chancellor did not call for German troops, and Hitler ordered the invasion to commence at dawn on 12 March.
On the morning of 12 March, German troops crossed the Austrian border, encountering no resistance. Hitler himself crossed the border at his birthplace, Braunau am Inn, later that day. The next day, 13 March, Austrian parliament formally approved the annexation.
On 10 April, a plebiscite was held to ratify the annexation. The vote was held under the supervision of the German army and was preceded by a major propaganda campaign. The ballot was not secret, and threats and coercion were used to manipulate the vote. The result was 99.7% approval for the Anschluss.
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Frequently asked questions
The Anschluss was the first act of territorial aggression and expansion by Nazi Germany. It was the annexation of Austria into the German Reich on 13 March 1938. The idea of a union between Austria and Germany was not new, but the peace treaties that ended World War I expressly forbade Germany and Austria from uniting. The Anschluss demonstrated Nazi disdain for the post-World War I European order. The international community did not intervene to try and stop the Anschluss. Nor did they punish Nazi Germany for violating international treaties. Thus, the Anschluss is one of the earliest and most significant examples of the international community’s appeasement of Adolf Hitler’s aggressive foreign policy.
The international response to the Anschluss was publicly moderate. The Times commented that 300 years before, Scotland had joined England as well and that this event would not really differ much. On 14 March 1938, the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain spoke about the "Austrian situation" in the House of Commons. He noted that the British ambassador in Berlin objected to the use of "coercion, backed by force" that would undermine Austria's independence. Within this speech, Chamberlain also said, "The hard fact is that nothing could have arrested what has actually happened [in Austria] unless this country and other countries had been prepared to use force." Chamberlain informed the Foreign Policy Committee that the Anschluss would not alter the National Government's European policy.
The Austrian Nazi Party failed to win any seats in the November 1930 general election, but its popularity grew in Austria after Hitler came to power in Germany. The idea of the country joining Germany also grew in popularity, thanks in part to a Nazi propaganda campaign which used slogans such as Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer ("One People, One Empire, One Leader") to try to convince Austrians to advocate for an Anschluss to the German Reich. The Austrian Nazi Party waged a propaganda and terror campaign. The campaign was encouraged and funded by Germany. The Nazi goal was to undermine the Dollfuss regime by making it look incompetent. They staged disruptive protests and brawled with political opponents and the police. Austrian Nazis set off explosives and tear gas bombs in public places and Jewish-owned businesses.
Austrian chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg met with Hitler in the hopes of reasserting his country’s independence but was instead bullied into naming several top Austrian Nazis to his cabinet. On March 9, Schuschnigg called a national vote to resolve the question of Anschluss, or “annexation,” once and for all. Before the plebiscite could take place, however, Schuschnigg gave in to pressure from Hitler and resigned on March11. In his resignation address, under coercion from the Nazis, he pleaded with Austrian forces not to resist a German “advance” into the country.
