Austria-Hungary's German Alliance: Who Made The First Move?

The alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany was formed in 1879 through the Dual Alliance treaty. The two countries promised each other support in the event of an attack by Russia and neutrality in the event of aggression by another power. This alliance was surprising to many, given the differences between the two countries, including their recent conflict in the Austro-Prussian War, and Austria-Hungary's belief that Germany's promotion of nationalism would threaten their multinational empire. However, their shared distrust of Russia, and Germany's desire to prevent isolation and preserve peace, brought them together. This alliance eventually expanded to include Italy in 1882, forming the Triple Alliance.

The Austro-German Alliance was formed in 1879

The Austro-German Alliance, also known as the Dual Alliance, was formed on October 7, 1879, as part of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's system of alliances to prevent or limit war. The alliance was a pact between Austria-Hungary and the German Empire, in which both powers promised to support each other in the event of an attack by Russia and remain neutral if either was attacked by another European power, generally assumed to be France.

The formation of the alliance was surprising to many, as Austria-Hungary and Germany had been driven apart by differences, most notably during the Austro-Prussian War. Additionally, the Habsburg rulers of Austria believed that Germany's promotion of nationalism would threaten their multinational empire. However, their shared distrust of Russia united the two empires.

In the years leading up to the alliance, the German Empire, formed in 1871, wanted to portray itself as a peacemaker and preserver of the European status quo. In 1878, Russia's victory over the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War resulted in the Treaty of San Stefano, which gave Russia significant influence in the Balkans. This outraged Austria-Hungary, as Russia was its chief rival in the region. Bismarck, attempting to play the role of a mediator, called for the Congress of Berlin, an international conference that led to the Treaty of Berlin. This treaty reversed Russia's gains and provided Austria with compensation in the form of Bosnia. Despite Bismarck's efforts, Russo-German relations deteriorated, and the Three Emperors' League was dissolved, freeing Germany and Austria-Hungary to ally against Russia.

The Austro-German Alliance was an important element of both countries' foreign policies until 1918, and it laid the foundation for the Triple Alliance with Italy in 1882, marking a significant shift in the balance of power in Europe.

Both countries promised support if attacked by Russia

The alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany was formed on October 7, 1879, by treaty. The two countries formed a defensive alliance known as the Dual Alliance, whereby they promised to support each other if either was attacked by Russia. This alliance was surprising to many, given the previous tensions between the two countries, including the Austro-Prussian War, and the fact that the promotion of nationalism by Germany threatened to destroy the multinational empire of the Habsburg rulers in Austria-Hungary.

However, their common distrust of Russia brought the two empires together. After the formation of the German Empire in 1871, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck wanted to portray Germany as a peacemaker and preserver of the European status quo. In 1878, Russia defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, gaining considerable influence in the Balkans. This outraged Austria-Hungary, which was Russia's chief rival in the region. Bismarck called an international conference to resolve the issue, which resulted in the Treaty of Berlin that reversed Russia's gains. Despite Bismarck's attempts to remain neutral, Russo-German relations deteriorated.

The Dual Alliance was also formed to prevent the isolation of the German Empire, which had only recently been founded, and to preserve peace, as Russia was unlikely to wage war against both empires. Additionally, each state promised benevolent neutrality to the other if attacked by another European power, which was generally assumed to be France, especially after the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894.

The alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany against Russia was further strengthened in 1882 when Italy joined to form the Triple Alliance, the first formal alliance in Europe. However, Italy did not immediately join its allies in World War I, choosing to remain neutral until 1915 when it joined the Entente powers and declared war on Austria-Hungary and, in 1916, on Germany.

Austria-Hungary's rivalry with Serbia

Historical Context

Austria-Hungary, known for its multi-ethnic empire, shared a volatile relationship with its neighbouring Serbia due to competing interests and ambitions in the Balkan region. Serbia aspired to unify the Slavic people of southeast Europe, which threatened the stability of Austria-Hungary's diverse empire. Additionally, Serbia's growing influence in the Balkans challenged Austria-Hungary's position as a regional power.

Competing Ambitions in the Balkans

The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 further strained relations as Serbia emerged as a more assertive power. Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia in 1908 and its support for Bulgarian claims against Serbia alienated Romania, fostering resentment among non-Hungarian nationalities within the empire. These factors contributed to a belief among Vienna's government circles that offensive action against Serbia was necessary to safeguard the empire's integrity.

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian-Serb terrorist. This assassination served as a catalyst for the escalating tensions between the two nations. Austria-Hungary suspected Serbian backing for the assassination and viewed Serbia as a threat to its empire's future, given its significant South Slavic population.

Ultimatum and Rejection

Encouraged by its ally, Germany, Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with an ultimatum on July 23, 1914. The ultimatum demanded the suppression of anti-Austrian propaganda in Serbia and Austrian involvement in investigating the archduke's assassination. While Serbia accepted most demands, it rejected the involvement of Austro-Hungarian officials on Serbian soil, considering it a violation of its sovereignty.

Declaration of War

On July 28, 1914, exactly one month after the assassination, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, marking the beginning of World War I. Austria-Hungary, with German support, was determined to crush the Serbian threat and quash Serbia's independence. This aggression towards Serbia stemmed from fears that backing down would damage their prestige and credibility as great powers.

Military Campaigns and Atrocities

Austria-Hungary launched multiple offensives against Serbia, including a "punitive expedition" that resulted in atrocities and war crimes against Serbian civilians. The Austro-Hungarian Army committed massacres, took hostages, and burned villages. Serbian resistance, led by guerrilla groups called "Chetniks," prolonged the conflict and resulted in heavy casualties on both sides.

Occupation and Repression

With German and Bulgarian support, Austria-Hungary eventually occupied Serbia by January 1916. The occupied territory was divided into zones, with Serbia's sovereignty destroyed. The Austro-Hungarian occupation aimed to denationalize and depoliticize the Serb population, banning political organizations, public gatherings, and imposing martial law. Serbia's cultural institutions were looted, and its educational system was overhauled to impose Austrian academic standards.

Liberation of Serbia

The Allied forces, including the Serbian Second Army and the Yugoslav Volunteer Division, broke through the Salonica front in September 1918, leading to the liberation of Serbia by November 1918. The occupation ended with the surrender of Bulgaria and the retreat of Austro-Hungarian troops.

Germany's ambitions and foreign policy

Germany's foreign policy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was largely driven by a desire to establish itself as a global power and secure its interests in Europe. Here is an overview of Germany's ambitions and foreign policy during this period:

Establishing a Global Empire

Germany, a latecomer to imperialism, sought to build a colonial empire to rival those of other European powers. This ambition led to a naval arms race with Britain, as Germany rapidly expanded its navy to protect its colonies and project power globally. Germany's aggressive naval expansion strained relations with Britain, which had previously dominated naval affairs.

Alliances and Rivalries

To secure its position in Europe, Germany formed the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, agreeing to mutual military support against a potential Russian attack. This alliance was surprising given the recent Austro-Prussian War and cultural differences between the two empires. However, their shared distrust of Russia united them. In 1882, Italy joined the alliance, forming the Triple Alliance.

Germany's growing strength and its ambitions caused concern among other European powers, leading to shifting alliances. Russia and France, fearing German power, formed an alliance in 1893. Germany's attempts to oppose French influence in Morocco further strained relations with Britain, which supported France. This series of alliances left Germany feeling encircled and isolated.

Preserving Austria-Hungary

By the early 20th century, Austria-Hungary was Germany's only reliable ally. Preserving Austria-Hungary as a great power became a crucial part of German foreign policy. When Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated by a Serbian-backed terrorist in 1914, Germany strongly supported Austria-Hungary's aggressive response, ultimately leading to the outbreak of World War I.

Military Interference in Foreign Policy

The powerful German military played a significant role in shaping foreign policy, particularly when military alliances or warfare was at issue. Military leaders often interfered in foreign policy decisions and pushed for a more aggressive stance. During the July Crisis of 1914, military leaders advised Austria-Hungary to mobilize against Russia without informing the Emperor or Chancellor.

Italy joins the alliance in 1882

The alliance between Austria-Hungary and Germany, known as the Dual Alliance, was formed in 1879. In 1882, Italy joined this alliance, creating the Triple Alliance. This alliance was the first formal alliance in Europe.

Italy had several motives for joining the alliance. Firstly, the Italian government at the time was controlled by conservatives, who shared ideological sympathies with the monarchies of Austria-Hungary and Germany. Additionally, Catholic Austria was a traditional protector of the Papacy, with whom Italy had poor relations. However, Italy's primary motivation was to seek potential allies against France.

Italy, like many other European powers, had ambitions to establish colonies and build an overseas empire. Although France had supported Italian unification, Italy's colonial ambitions in Africa quickly brought it into conflict with France. This rivalry was reflected in Italy's anger at the French conquest of Tunisia in 1881, which the Italian press dubbed the "Slap of Tunis". Many Italians had viewed Tunisia as a potential colony. By joining the alliance, Italy hoped to guarantee support in the event of foreign aggression.

The Triple Alliance was a defensive military pact, with each member promising mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power. Specifically, the treaty provided that Germany and Austria-Hungary would assist Italy if it was attacked by France without provocation, and Italy would assist Germany in the same scenario. In the event of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral.

The alliance was initially set to last five years but was renewed every five years until 1914. Despite being a member of the Triple Alliance, Italy did not join World War I on the side of the Central Powers (Germany and Austria-Hungary). Instead, Italy remained neutral and later joined the war on the side of the Allied Powers, declaring war on Austria-Hungary in 1915 and on Germany in 1916.

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