Who Won: Austria-Hungary Or Serbia?

The conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia was a series of military expeditions that took place during World War I, known as the Serbian Campaign. It began on July 28, 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist. The Serbian Campaign consisted of multiple invasions and offensives by Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany and Bulgaria, against Serbia and its allies, Montenegro and Russia. Despite initial setbacks and defeats, Austria-Hungary, along with its allies, ultimately occupied Serbia and divided it into occupation zones. However, Serbia was eventually liberated by Allied forces in 1918, bringing an end to the occupation.

The First World War begins

On 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, marking the beginning of the First World War. This came exactly one month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, in Sarajevo. A Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, was responsible for the killing.

Austria-Hungary, with the backing of its powerful ally Germany, presented Serbia with an ultimatum on 23 July 1914. This included demands to suppress anti-Austrian propaganda and allow Austria-Hungary to investigate the assassination. Serbia accepted all demands except one, but Austria-Hungary broke off diplomatic relations and continued with military preparations.

The Serbian campaign, dubbed a "punitive expedition" by Austro-Hungarian leadership, was commanded by Austrian General Oskar Potiorek. Despite three unsuccessful invasion attempts, Serbia, with help from Montenegro, managed to repel the Austro-Hungarian forces. This was considered one of the great upsets of modern military history and the first Allied victory in World War I.

The Austro-Hungarian Army's failure to invade Serbia can be attributed to various factors, including a smaller army size due to outdated laws, insufficient funding, and poor leadership. In contrast, Serbia had a more experienced and motivated army, having recently been involved in the Balkan Wars. Additionally, Austria-Hungary faced challenges with language barriers, ethnic nationalism, and a lack of unity between its Austrian and Hungarian components.

The First World War escalated as Russia, Serbia's ally, began military mobilisation against Austria-Hungary, leading to a wider European conflict.

Serbia's successful defence

Military Strength:

Serbia faced a formidable foe in the form of Austria-Hungary, which was considered a major European power. The Austro-Hungarian Army had a vast military power, with a standing peacetime force of 36,000 officers and 414,000 enlisted personnel. During mobilisation, this number could surge to 3,350,000 men. In contrast, Serbia could mobilise approximately 450,000 men, comprising three age-defined classes.

Strategic Advantages:

Serbia's strategic advantages played a crucial role in its defence. The Austro-Hungarian plan to invade Serbia envisioned concentrating three armies on Serbia's western and northern borders. However, due to the Russian mobilisation, they had to divert the 2nd Army, reducing their numerical advantage. Additionally, the Austro-Hungarian soldiers were of varying quality, with about a quarter being illiterate and lacking a common language, which created communication challenges.

Serbian Experience and Motivation:

Serbia's military had recent combat experience from the Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913, making them a more seasoned force. They also had the advantage of defending their homeland, which boosted their morale and determination. The Austro-Hungarian leadership, on the other hand, underestimated the Serbian forces and their will to fight.

Allied Support:

Serbia received critical support from its allies, particularly Montenegro, France, and Russia. Montenegro fought alongside Serbia during the first invasion, helping to repel the Austro-Hungarian forces. France and Russia provided military aid, although their attention was divided due to conflicts on other fronts.

Austro-Hungarian Missteps:

Austria-Hungary's military leadership made several critical missteps. They initially planned to use three armies against Serbia but had to reduce it to two due to pressure from Germany. This left them with insufficient troops for a successful offensive. Additionally, the Austro-Hungarians divided their forces after capturing Belgrade, which allowed the Serbs to launch a successful counter-attack and drive them out.

Guerilla Warfare:

Serbia also employed guerilla warfare tactics, with small groups of insurgents, known as Chetniks, waging a guerrilla campaign against the occupiers. These Chetniks had a long tradition of guerrilla warfare and strong local support, making them a persistent threat to the Austro-Hungarian forces.

Allied Breakthrough:

In September 1918, Allied forces, including the Serbian Second Army and the Yugoslav Volunteer Division, broke through the Salonica front, leading to the liberation of Serbia and the retreat of Austro-Hungarian troops. This Allied breakthrough was a decisive factor in defeating Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary and ultimately ending World War I.

Austria-Hungary's failed invasions

First Invasion Attempt

The first invasion attempt began on July 28, 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist. The Austro-Hungarian Army, led by General Oskar Potiorek, launched a "punitive expedition" into Serbia. However, despite their numerical superiority, they faced strong resistance from the Serbian and Montenegrin forces. The Austro-Hungarians suffered defeats at the hands of the Serbian army, particularly at the Battle of Cer, where they were pushed back across the border. This initial invasion attempt lasted only thirteen days and ended unsuccessfully.

Second Invasion Attempt

Undeterred by their initial failure, the Austro-Hungarians launched a second invasion in September 1914. This time, they engaged all their forces, outnumbering and outgunning the Serbs. However, the Serbs mounted a fierce resistance, and the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army was forced to retreat into Bosnia. The Sixth Army's offensive was also halted by a strong Serbian counterattack. Despite nearly 30,000 casualties, the Austro-Hungarians retained a foothold in Serbia and continued their invasion attempts.

Third Invasion Attempt

General Potiorek regrouped and launched a third offensive in November 1914, exploiting their superiority in artillery. They captured Valjevo and Belgrade, forcing the Serbian army to retreat. However, the Serbs launched a sustained counterattack in December, decisively defeating the Austro-Hungarians at the Battle of Kolubara and recapturing Belgrade. This defeat wounded the pride of the Austro-Hungarian leadership and led to the replacement of General Potiorek. The Austro-Hungarian army lost about 100,000 men and faced a typhoid epidemic, further decimating their forces.

Factors Contributing to the Failed Invasions

The failed invasions can be attributed to several factors:

• Underestimation of Serbian Forces: The Austro-Hungarians underestimated the Serbian military capabilities and believed Serbia would fall quickly.
• Numerical and Tactical Disadvantages: The Austro-Hungarian army faced challenges with troop numbers, as they had to divide their forces between the Serbian and Russian fronts. Additionally, their troops were ill-trained and lacked proper equipment.
• Corruption and Poor Leadership: The Austro-Hungarian military leadership was marred by corruption, with some high-ranking positions occupied by individuals due to political connections rather than military merit. This led to poor strategic decisions and a lack of coordination.
• Language and Ethnic Barriers: The Austro-Hungarian Empire consisted of multiple ethnic groups, and language barriers created communication issues within their forces. Additionally, many soldiers had cultural links with the empire's enemies, affecting their loyalty.
• Serbian Determination and Experience: The Serbian forces were highly motivated, defending their homeland. They also had experienced officers and troops due to their involvement in previous conflicts, such as the Balkan Wars.

The July Crisis

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand

On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated by Bosnian Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo. The assassination was a result of growing nationalist tensions in the Balkans, with Serbia seeking to unite more Serbian territory and people with the country, including parts of Croatia, the Vojvodina and the Sandžak, and Bosnia, which had been annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908.

• 28 June 1914: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo, Bosnia.
• 5 July 1914: Austro-Hungarian envoy Count Hoyos travels to Berlin to establish the level of German support for Austrian action against Serbia. Kaiser Wilhelm II and Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg encourage Austrian action and Germany issues a 'blank cheque', promising unconditional support to their ally.
• 7 July 1914: Austro-Hungarian Ministerial Council convenes and decides on a deliberately unacceptable ultimatum to Serbia to initiate military action or Serbia's humiliation.
• 15-29 July 1914: French state visit to Russia (French President and Prime Minister absent from France).
• 23 July 1914: Austria issues ultimatum to Serbia, giving Serbia 48 hours to reply.
• 25 July 1914: Serbia replies to the ultimatum, surprisingly meeting almost all demands. Nonetheless, Austria-Hungary breaks off diplomatic relations with Serbia.
• 26 July 1914: Britain proposes mediation conference; ignored by Berlin and Vienna. Partial mobilisation of four Russian districts.
• 28 July 1914: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. Wilhelm II proposes a 'Halt in Belgrade'.
• 29 July 1914: Bethmann Hollweg attempts to restrain Austria-Hungary for the first time during the crisis.
• 30 July 1914: Tsar Nicholas II authorises Russian general mobilisation for the next day.
• 1 August 1914: Germany declares war on Russia. France and Germany begin general mobilisation.
• 2 August 1914: German troops invade Luxembourg as part of its deployment plan. Germany issues ultimatum to Belgium. British cabinet approves protection of French coast and of Belgian neutrality.
• 3 August 1914: German troops invade Belgium; Germany's declaration of war on France. Italy decides to stay neutral.
• 4 August 1914: Britain declares war on Germany.
• 6 August 1914: Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.

The First World War

The Bosnian Crisis

The Origins of the Crisis

The origins of the crisis can be traced back to the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which reorganised South-East Europe in the wake of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule. Through this treaty, the Habsburg Empire gained the right to occupy and administer the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with the Treaty of Berlin granting Austria-Hungary the authority to establish its own administration in these territories. This treaty also gave Austria-Hungary special rights in the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, with Article 25 stating:

> "The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary"

The Annexation

Fearing that the new Ottoman rulers would attempt to restore their political power in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Austrian foreign minister, Graf Lexa von Aehrenthal, sought to annex these territories formally. In September 1908, Aehrenthal met with the Russian foreign minister, Aleksandr Izvolsky, and secured Russia's agreement not to oppose the annexation. In exchange, Austria-Hungary pledged not to object to opening the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits to Russian warships. On October 5, 1908, Emperor Franz Joseph announced his determination to recognise and grant autonomous rule to Bosnia and Herzegovina, with the formal annexation taking place on October 6.

Reactions to the Annexation

The annexation sparked protests from the Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbours, particularly Serbia and Montenegro, which had close geographic and ethnic ties to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia demanded that Austria cede a portion of the annexed territory, and these demands were supported by Russia, which faced strong anti-Austrian sentiment domestically. Austria-Hungary, backed by its ally Germany, threatened to invade Serbia if it persisted with its demands.

Resolution of the Crisis

Russia, weakened by its recent defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, was unable to secure strong support from its ally France and was forced to back down. In March 1909, Izvolsky notified Germany that Russia accepted the annexation. While immediate warfare was averted, the crisis left embittered relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary and resentment in Russia, contributing to the outbreak of World War I a few years later.

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