Austria-Serbia Conflict: A Key Wwi Flashpoint

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, in June 1914 was the catalyst for World War I, igniting a conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia that would escalate into a global war. The assassination was carried out by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist and member of the Black Hand, a Serbian paramilitary group aiming to unite Balkan Slavs under Serbian rule. This act of nationalism threatened to divide the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and with the backing of Germany, Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with an ultimatum on July 23, 1914, which was largely rejected, leading to a declaration of war on July 28. The dispute between these two countries not only set the stage for a broader Balkan conflict but also drew in major European powers, including Russia, Germany, France, and Britain, as they were entangled in a web of alliances and rivalries.

The Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909

In July 1908, the Young Turks staged a revolution in Constantinople, established a constitutional government, and inaugurated a reform program. The Austrian foreign minister, Graf Lexa von Aehrenthal, resolved to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina before the new Turkish regime could regain control over them. In September 1908, Aehrenthal met with the Russian foreign minister, Aleksandr P. Izvolsky, and they agreed that Russia would not object to the annexation. In return, Austria would not object to opening the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits to Russian warships.

On 7 October 1908, Emperor Franz Joseph announced his determination to recognise and grant the Bosnian and Herzegovinian people an autonomous and constitutional regime under his authority as their annexing sovereign. The following day, Austria-Hungary announced its withdrawal from the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire on 5 October 1908 was timed to coincide with the Bosnian annexation. This unilateral action sparked protestations from all the Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbours, Serbia and Montenegro.

Serbia, which was closely related to Bosnia and Herzegovina geographically and ethnically, was outraged by the annexation. It demanded that Austria cede a portion of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia. Izvolsky, pressed by anti-Austrian opinion in Russia, was forced to support the Serbian claims. Austria, however, firmly supported by its ally Germany, threatened to invade Serbia if it persisted in its demands.

Russia, having failed to secure equally strong support from its ally France, could not risk a war against both Austria-Hungary and Germany for Serbia's sake. In March 1909, Izvolsky notified Germany that Russia accepted Austria's annexation. Although the crisis was resolved without immediate warfare, the resulting embittered relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, and Russia's resentment at having been deceived and humiliated, contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

The Balkan Wars (1912-1913)

The Balkan Wars were a series of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan states in 1912 and 1913. The First Balkan War began on 8 October 1912 and ended eight months later with the signing of the Treaty of London on 30 May 1913. The Second Balkan War began on 16 June 1913 and ended with the Treaty of Bucharest on 10 August 1913.

The First Balkan War

The First Balkan War was fought between the four Balkan states of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria (collectively known as the Balkan League) and the Ottoman Empire. The Balkan League was formed under Russian auspices in the spring of 1912 to take Macedonia away from Turkey, which was already involved in a war with Italy. The Balkan states' combined armies overcame the initially numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies, achieving rapid success. The war was a comprehensive and unmitigated disaster for the Ottomans, who lost 83% of their European territories and 69% of their European population. The Balkan League captured and partitioned almost all of the Ottoman Empire's remaining territories in Europe.

The Second Balkan War

The Second Balkan War began when Bulgaria attacked its former allies, Serbia and Greece, on 16 June 1913, dissatisfied with the division of spoils in Macedonia. Romania, which had taken no part in the first conflict, invaded Bulgaria from the north. The Ottoman Empire also attacked Bulgaria and advanced in Thrace, regaining Adrianople. The war ended with the Treaty of Bucharest, which partitioned Macedonia, made changes to the Balkan borders and established the independent state of Albania.

Prelude to World War I

The Balkan Wars set the stage for the July Crisis of 1914 and thus served as a prelude to the First World War. The dispute between Austria-Hungary and Serbia escalated into what is now known as World War I, drawing in Russia, Germany, France and the British Empire.

The July Crisis

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand was the trigger for the July Crisis, but the roots of the conflict lay in the complex web of alliances between the major powers of Europe, coupled with the miscalculations of numerous political and military leaders. The crisis was also fuelled by Austria-Hungary's desire to inflict a military blow on Serbia, to demonstrate its own strength and to dampen Serbian support for Yugoslav nationalism, which it viewed as a threat to the unity of its multi-national empire.

On 5 July, Count Hoyos, an Austro-Hungarian envoy, travelled to Berlin to establish the level of German support for Austrian action against Serbia. Kaiser Wilhelm II and Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg encouraged Austrian action and Germany issued a 'blank cheque', promising unconditional support to their ally.

On 7 July, the Austro-Hungarian Ministerial Council convened and decided on a deliberately unacceptable ultimatum to Serbia to initiate military action or Serbia's humiliation. The delivery of the ultimatum was delayed to coincide with the departure of the French President and Prime Minister from St. Petersburg, scheduled for 23 July.

On 23 July, Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia, giving them 48 hours to reply. Serbia surprisingly met almost all the demands, but Austria-Hungary nonetheless broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia. Britain proposed a mediation conference, but this was ignored by Berlin and Vienna. Russia ordered a partial mobilisation of four districts.

On 28 July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Wilhelm II proposed a 'Halt in Belgrade', but this was ignored. Bethmann Hollweg attempted to restrain Austria-Hungary for the first time during the crisis.

On 30 July, Tsar Nicholas II authorised Russian general mobilisation for the next day. Germany declared war on Russia. France and Germany began general mobilisation. German troops invaded Luxembourg as part of their deployment plan. Germany issued an ultimatum to Belgium. The British cabinet approved protection of the French coast and of Belgian neutrality.

On 4 August, German troops invaded Belgium; Germany declared war on France. Italy decided to stay neutral. Britain declared war on Germany.

On 6 August, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia.

The July Ultimatum

On 23 July 1914, the Austro-Hungarian government issued Serbia with an ultimatum containing six concrete demands. The demands were formulated in a way that made them seem unacceptable, and Serbia was given 48 hours to respond. The demands were:

• The Serbian government was required to officially distance itself from the political campaign to unite the southern Slav peoples under Serbian leadership, which was a challenge to the territorial integrity of Austria-Hungary.
• The purging of the Serbian army and civil service of anti-Austrian agitators.
• The suppression of anti-Austrian propaganda in the Serbian press.
• The tracking down and taking of legal proceedings against extremist secret organisations operating against Austria.
• The prosecution of Major Vojislav Tankosić and civil servant Milan Ciganović, who were named as participants in the assassination plot.
• The participation of Austrian officials in the investigation into the assassination and in the hunting down and prosecution of the ringleaders on Serbian territory.

The sixth point was formulated in such a way as to make Serbian acceptance unlikely, as it would infringe upon Serbia's state sovereignty.

The Serbian Campaign

The First Campaign

The first campaign began after Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. The campaign, dubbed the "punitive expedition" by the Austro-Hungarian leadership, was under the command of Austrian General Oskar Potiorek. It ended after three unsuccessful Austro-Hungarian invasion attempts were repelled by the Serbians and their Montenegrin allies. The victory of the Royal Serbian Army at the Battle of Cer is considered the first Allied victory in World War I, and the Austro-Hungarian Army's defeat by Serbia has been called one of the great upsets of modern military history.

The Second Campaign

The second campaign was launched under German command on October 6, 1915, when Bulgarian, Austro-Hungarian, and German forces, led by Field Marshal August von Mackensen, successfully invaded Serbia from three sides. This resulted in the Great Retreat through Montenegro and Albania, the evacuation to Greece, and the establishment of the Macedonian front. The defeat of Serbia gave the Central Powers temporary mastery over the Balkans, opening up a land route from Berlin to Constantinople. Mackensen declared an end to the campaign on November 24, 1915. Serbia was then occupied and divided between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria.

The Liberation of Serbia

After the Allies launched the Vardar Offensive in September 1918, a Franco-Serbian force advanced into the occupied territories and liberated Serbia, Albania, and Montenegro. Serbian forces entered Belgrade on November 1, 1918.

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