Cartels In Bolivia: A Complex Web Of Power And Influence

Bolivia has long been associated with the coca crop and the production of cocaine, and in recent years, the country has become a major hub for drug trafficking. While the presence of drug cartels in Bolivia is a significant issue, it is important to note that the country also faces other forms of organised crime, including human trafficking, arms trafficking, and the trade in counterfeit goods.

The country's geographical location and porous borders make it an ideal transit point for drug cartels and smugglers, and the Bolivian government has struggled to effectively address these issues due to weak governance, corruption, and a lack of resources. In addition, the expulsion of the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) by President Evo Morales has further contributed to the rise in drug trafficking in the country.

As Bolivia continues to grapple with the presence of drug cartels and other criminal organisations, it is crucial to understand the complex social, political, and economic factors that contribute to these issues.

Cocaine production and trafficking

Bolivia has long been a producer of coca leaves, which are used in the production of cocaine. In recent years, the country has become one of the world's leading cocaine manufacturers. In 2023, almost 33 tons of cocaine were seized in Bolivia, and more than 1,800 factories have been destroyed since 2020. However, these figures are estimated to represent only 10% of the drugs in circulation.

The reorganization of drug trafficking routes has made Bolivia's geography an asset for traffickers. The country's weak state control and strategic location have made it a convenient platform to supply the growing drug consumption markets in Brazil and Argentina. Additionally, the intensification of Colombia's counternarcotics efforts has made it a more hostile environment for drug trafficking organizations, leading to a dispersion of traffickers to other countries, including Bolivia.

The production and trafficking of cocaine in Bolivia are facilitated by the country's large legal coca leaf industry, which is authorized on 22,000 hectares of land. However, the actual area under cultivation is much larger, with estimates ranging from 30,000 to 45,000 hectares. The Chapare region in the Cochabamba Department is a stronghold of former president Evo Morales, himself a former grower and head of the powerful regional cocalero union. In 2017, Morales extended the legal area for coca cultivation, which has mainly benefited the Chapare region.

The Bolivian government has made efforts to eradicate coca cultivation and combat drug trafficking. In 2008, President Evo Morales expelled the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) from the country, accusing them of fomenting the drug trade. Despite this, Bolivia continues to maintain relations with the US government on counter-narcotics issues. In recent years, there has been a slight diplomatic thaw between the two countries due to improvements in Bolivia's narcotics situation.

The country's anti-narcotics efforts have been hindered by corruption within the government and security forces. Drug-related corruption has been reported within Bolivia's military, police, and judicial system, with officials accepting bribes and facilitating drug trafficking activities. The country's porous borders and weak institutions also make it an attractive location for drug smuggling.

In addition to the production and trafficking of cocaine, Bolivia is also a transit country for synthetic drugs, with most drugs coming from Argentina and Brazil. While the consumption of synthetic drugs is low in Bolivia, there is evidence of their use in bars, nightclubs, and elite high schools.

Drug trafficking and corruption

In the 1980s, the Bolivian government began efforts to eradicate coca cultivation, committing to a five-year program to reduce coca production and creating the Coca Eradication Directorate (Dirección de la Reconversión de la Coca—Direco) under the Ministry of Agriculture, Campesino Affairs, and Livestock Affairs. However, these efforts had limited success and were highly controversial among peasants.

In the late 1980s, drug traffickers posed a serious threat to Bolivian society, with the existence of hundreds of clandestine airstrips, unidentified aircraft in Bolivian airspace, the presence of armed criminal groups, and the intervention of foreign governments and troops in Bolivian affairs. Drug-related corruption also took hold within Bolivia's military and security services, with the 1980 coup d'etat, known as the "Cocaine Coup", being financed by the cocaine "mafia".

In recent years, Bolivia has become a "strategic hub" for cocaine trafficking, with the country transitioning from a producer of coca leaves to one of the world's leading cocaine manufacturers. The reorganization of drug trafficking routes has made Bolivia's geography advantageous for traffickers. In 2024, Bolivian authorities seized 8.7 tons of cocaine in the department of Oruro, in what was described as the largest anti-drug operation in the country's history.

The increase in drug trafficking in Bolivia has been attributed to various factors, including the expulsion of the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) by President Evo Morales, the emergence of Brazil and Argentina as robust drug consumption markets, and the intensification of Colombia's counternarcotics efforts, which have made it a more challenging environment for drug trafficking organizations.

Bolivia's porous borders and weak institutions make it an attractive country for drug smuggling, with organized groups using the country to smuggle drugs to larger markets. Family clans in Bolivia, particularly in La Paz and Oruro, are involved in the drug trafficking chain, supplying cocaine to powerful organized crime groups in Brazil, Colombia, and other countries.

The Bolivian state is plagued by corruption, with state-embedded actors facilitating or participating in criminal networks involved in drug trafficking. Weak governance, low salaries, and an unprofessional bureaucracy create incentives for corruption and clientelism. The justice system's lack of credibility and high levels of impunity further contribute to the challenges in combating drug trafficking and corruption in Bolivia.

Drug trafficking organisations (DTOs)

The country has a long history of coca leaf production, which serves as the raw material for cocaine. In recent years, Bolivia has transitioned from being solely a coca leaf producer to becoming one of the world's leading cocaine manufacturers. This shift has resulted in a growing number of DTOs operating within the country.

The presence of DTOs in Bolivia is influenced by various factors, including the dispersion of traffickers from Colombia due to intensified counternarcotics efforts in that country. Additionally, smaller and more nimble DTOs from other parts of the world, such as Russia, Ukraine, and Albania, have also established a presence in Latin America.

The Bolivian government's decision to expel the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the country's weak state control have further contributed to the rise of DTOs. These organisations operate with relative impunity, taking advantage of Bolivia's porous borders and weak institutions.

The impact of DTOs in Bolivia is widespread, affecting various sectors of society. For example, the drug trade has led to an increased prevalence of corruption within the military, security services, and the judicial system. It has also resulted in violent crimes, including the murder of scientists, pilots, and political figures.

To combat the issue of DTOs, the Bolivian government has implemented various measures, including signing agreements with the United States and creating specialised anti-narcotics forces. However, the effectiveness of these efforts has been limited, and Bolivia continues to be a significant player in the global drug trade.

US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)

The US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is a federal law enforcement agency that was established in 1973 as part of the US government's war on drugs. The DEA is tasked with combating illicit drug trafficking and distribution within the US and has sole responsibility for coordinating and pursuing US drug investigations both domestically and internationally.

In 2008, the then-President of Bolivia, Evo Morales, gave the DEA three months to leave the country, accusing them of fomenting the drug trade rather than fighting it. This expulsion came on the heels of a revolt in the traditional coca-growing Chapare Province, with Morales claiming that the DEA was helping to incite the violence. National agencies were to take over control of drug management in Bolivia.

Despite the expulsion, President Morales continued to maintain relations with the US government, including on counter-narcotics issues. This was facilitated by the Morales administration's success in reducing coca cultivation in Bolivia. The strategy relied on the voluntary participation of farmers from all coca-growing regions in the country, with farmers in Chapare, for instance, being allowed to grow a limited amount of coca per year. Any coca grown beyond that limit, or any cultivation outside of approved coca-cultivation regions, is subject to elimination. As a result of this strategy, coca cultivation in Bolivia fell by 12% from 2010 to 2011, with seizures of coca paste and cocaine, and the destruction of drug laboratories, also increasing under Morales' presidency.

In 2024, Bolivia was labelled a 'strategic hub' for cocaine trafficking, with the country becoming one of the world's leading cocaine manufacturers. This shift can be attributed to the reorganization of drug trafficking routes, which has made the country's geography an asset for traffickers, as well as the emergence of Brazil and Argentina as robust drug consumption markets. The intensification of Colombia's counternarcotics efforts has also made it a more hostile environment for drug trafficking organizations, leading to a dispersion of traffickers to neighbouring countries, including Bolivia.

The DEA has faced criticism for its scheduling of drugs with medical uses and for focusing on operations that allow it to seize money rather than those involving drugs that cause more harm. Additionally, the agency has been accused of using tax dollars to publish policy-based papers in an attempt to change public opinion, with some critics characterising this as domestic propaganda.

Cartels and mafia groups

Bolivia is a major producer of coca leaves, which are processed into cocaine. The country has become a "strategic hub" for cocaine trafficking, with its geography making it a convenient platform to supply Brazil and Argentina, which have emerged as robust drug consumption markets. The country's weak governance, corruption, and porous borders have facilitated the growth of drug trafficking and related criminal activities.

The Role of Cartels and Mafia Groups

In addition to international cartels, Bolivian criminal organizations, particularly mafia-style groups, have gained power and control within the country. These groups have connections with international actors and public officials, facilitating their involvement in various illegal activities such as drug trafficking, arms trafficking, human smuggling, and the trade in counterfeit goods.

One notable example is the Lima Lobo clan, a long-standing drug group operating in the Bolivian Amazon along the northeast border with Brazil. The Lima Lobo clan has supplied cocaine to powerful organized crime groups in Brazil and Colombia, including the First Capital Command (PCC). They utilize aircraft, clandestine airstrips, and river routes to smuggle cocaine across the border.

Venezuelan mafia groups have also been active in Bolivia, profiting from the Venezuelan migration crisis and human smuggling. They are believed to be behind the transnational flow of people, operating through local allies.

Furthermore, mafia-style groups in Bolivia are involved in the transportation of large shipments of cocaine base to neighbouring countries and even Europe and Northern Africa. These groups operate with impunity due to the country's weak governance, corruption, and lack of effective law enforcement.

The Impact of Cartels and Mafia Groups

The presence of cartels and mafia groups in Bolivia has had significant negative consequences. Drug trafficking and related criminal activities have led to increased violence, corruption, and social instability in the country. The influx of drugs and arms has empowered criminal groups, making it challenging for law enforcement to combat their influence.

Additionally, the involvement of public officials and state-embedded actors in criminal networks has further weakened the country's ability to address these issues. The justice system's lack of credibility and high levels of impunity have hindered efforts to dismantle organized crime groups and hold them accountable for their actions.

The economic impact of drug trafficking and related criminal activities is also significant. The drug trade has contributed to inflation, distorted labour markets, and impacted the output of fruits and coffee intended for local consumption.

Frequently asked questions