The Geopolitical Divide: Examining The Regional Placement Of Myanmar And Afghanistan

Myanmar and Afghanistan are not in the same region. Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, is a country in Southeast Asia. Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia.

Military rule

Myanmar, also known as Burma, has been ruled by a military junta for many of the years since it gained independence from British colonial rule in 1948. The Union of Burma began as a parliamentary democracy, but representative democracy only lasted until 1962, when General Ne Win led a military coup and held power for the next twenty-six years.

The first phase of military rule in Myanmar, from 1962 to 1974, was marked by direct military rule under the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). The country became a one-party socialist state, with the military claiming it was necessary to save the country from disintegration. During this time, the United Nations and other organisations reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country.

The second phase, from 1974 to 1988, was a period of constitutional dictatorship, again under Ne Win. A new constitution was adopted in 1974, but the BSPP continued to rule.

In 1988, widespread corruption, rapid shifts in economic policy, and food shortages led to mass protests. The army cracked down on protesters, killing at least three thousand and displacing thousands more. In the aftermath, another military junta took power.

In 1990, opposition parties won a landslide victory in the first multiparty elections in almost thirty years, but the military ignored the result and retained control.

In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved, and a nominally civilian government was installed. However, the military maintained control over much of the government and began a campaign of ethnic cleansing against the Rohingya.

In February 2021, the Tatmadaw (the official name for the army) seized power in another coup, detaining State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi and other government leaders. The military junta's Commander-in-Chief, Min Aung Hlaing, became the country's leader.

Ethnic conflict

Myanmar and Afghanistan have both been ravaged by ethnic conflict since their independence. In Myanmar, the conflict has been largely ethnic-based, with several ethnic armed groups fighting the Tatmadaw, the country's armed forces, for self-determination. In Afghanistan, the conflict is between the Pashtuns, the largest ethnic group, and the non-Pashtuns (including Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Hazaras).

In Myanmar, the conflict has been ongoing since 1948, the year the country gained independence from the United Kingdom. The country has been ruled by a military junta from 1962 to 2011, and the military has been accused of severe human rights abuses and violations. The country's post-independence history has been characterised by unrest and conflict, with long-standing struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy.

In Afghanistan, the conflict has been ongoing since 1978, when a communist revolution established a socialist state. The conflict began as a power struggle between the country's dominant ethnic community, the Pashtuns, and other ethnic groups, including Uzbeks, Hazaras, and Tajiks. The Taliban, which grew out of the Pashtun population, has a legacy of seeking to dominate national power. The Taliban's rise was fuelled by rural Pashtun support for its agenda of ending warlord-generated insecurity, bringing back Pashtun prominence, and recreating traditional Pashtun village life.

In both countries, the conflict has been driven by the state's inability to address ethnic minority grievances or provide adequate security to communities. This has led to a literal arms race among minority groups, as they arm themselves for protection from rival ethnic communities and the state.

Geography

Myanmar and Afghanistan are not in the same region. Myanmar is located in Southeast Asia, while Afghanistan is in South and Central Asia.

Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia. It has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi). It is bordered by Bangladesh and India to its northwest, China to its northeast, Laos and Thailand to its east and southeast, and the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal to its south and southwest. Myanmar's capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city is Yangon.

Myanmar is divided into seven states and seven regions. The country is ethnically diverse, with the government recognising 135 distinct ethnic groups. The Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population. The country's official language is Burmese, and its currency is the Burmese kyat.

Myanmar has a varied geography, with mountain ranges, river valleys, plains, and deltas. The country is dominated by the Hindu Kush range, the western extension of the Himalayas. The country's highest point is Hkakabo Razi, at 5,881 metres (19,295 ft) above sea level. Myanmar has two major lakes: Indawgyi Lake and Inle Lake. The country has a tropical climate and is in the monsoon region of Asia.

Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and South Asia. It occupies 652,864 square kilometres (252,072 sq mi) of land and is predominantly mountainous, with plains in the north and southwest. Afghanistan is bordered by Pakistan to the east and south, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, Tajikistan to the northeast, and China to the northeast and east. The country's capital and largest city is Kabul.

Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces. The country is ethnically diverse, with several ethnolinguistic groups. The Pashtuns are the largest ethnic group, comprising 42% of the population. The official languages of Afghanistan are Dari and Pashto, and its currency is the Afghan afghani.

Afghanistan has a varied geography, with mountain ranges, river valleys, semi-desert plains, and basins. The country is dominated by the Hindu Kush mountain range, in the western extension of the Himalayas. The country's highest point is Noshaq, at 7,492 metres (24,580 ft) above sea level. Afghanistan does not have any major lakes. The country has a continental climate, with harsh winters and hot summers.

Religion

Afghanistan and Myanmar are not in the same region. Afghanistan is located in South Asia, while Myanmar is in Southeast Asia. However, both countries have a predominantly Muslim population, with Islam being the official religion of Afghanistan.

Around 99% of the population of Afghanistan is Muslim. The majority are Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi School (estimated at about 80%), with the Deobandi Movements and Salafists (Wahhabis) gaining power among the Sunnis over the last 30 years. About 15% of the population are Shia Muslims (Jafaris), and a few per cent adhere to Ismailism.

The position of religion is very strong in Afghanistan, and it shapes the cultural and national identity of the country. It is noticeable in dress, dietary codes, regular prayers, and language. For example, reverence to Allah is evident in the way many people speak; it is common to slip praise into casual conversation.

There are two main variations of Islam in Afghanistan: Sunni and Shi'a. An Afghan's ethnicity generally determines which denomination of Islam they belong to. Most Pashtuns, Tajiks, and Uzbeks are Sunni, while Hazaras constitute the largest Shi'a population.

The Afghan government is established as a Sunni Islamic Republic, so there is strong societal pressure to adhere to Sunni Islamic traditions. The moral code of Islamic doctrine tends to govern the political, economic, and legal aspects of an Afghan's life.

Myanmar is a Buddhist-majority country, with around 87.9% to 90% of the population practising Buddhism, specifically Theravada Buddhism. There are also significant minorities of Christians (6.2% to 6.3%) and Muslims (2.3% to 4.3%), as well as some Animists (0.8%) and Hindus (0.5%).

Myanmar's military has been accused of committing genocide and crimes against humanity against the Rohingya, a Muslim minority group. The Rohingya have been subjected to physical abuse, torture, extrajudicial killing, summary execution, arbitrary arrest, and detention. They are also denied citizenship and face restrictions on their religious practice, marriage, travel, and access to education and employment.

Comparison

While Afghanistan and Myanmar have a predominantly Muslim population, the expression of Islam differs greatly between the two countries. In Afghanistan, Islam is the official religion and shapes the country's politics, economy, and laws. In Myanmar, Buddhism is the majority religion and is deeply embedded in the culture, with strong links to the national identity of the Bamar ethnic group. However, both countries have experienced religious persecution and conflict, with minority groups facing restrictions and violence.

Economy

Myanmar and Afghanistan are two of the world's least developed countries, ranking 147th and 155th, respectively, in terms of nominal gross domestic product (GDP). Both countries have experienced decades of conflict, which has hindered economic growth and development. However, there are some key differences in their economic structures and performance.

Myanmar's economy is the seventh-largest in Southeast Asia and is largely agricultural, with the sector employing about 60-80% of the population. The country has rich natural resources, including jade, gems, oil, natural gas, teak, and other minerals, as well as renewable energy potential. Myanmar experienced high economic growth between 2011 and 2019, averaging 6% per year, along with a significant reduction in poverty. However, the country has faced an economic crisis since the 2021 military coup, with a sharp decline in foreign investment and trade. The economy is expected to grow by just 1% in 2024 and remains about 10% smaller than it was in 2019.

Afghanistan's economy, on the other hand, is the 155th largest in the world and is heavily dependent on agriculture, which employs about 60-80% of the population. The country has abundant natural resources, including lithium, iron, zinc, copper, and rare-earth elements. However, decades of conflict and political instability have deterred foreign investment and business development. Afghanistan's economy contracted sharply after the Taliban's return to power in 2021, with a loss of international aid and access to foreign reserves. The economy contracted by 20.7% in 2021 and a further 6.2% in 2022. The country's GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world, and the unemployment rate is over 23%.

Both Myanmar and Afghanistan have experienced economic liberalisation and reform efforts in recent years. Myanmar, under the civilian government that took power in 2011, implemented large-scale reforms focused on political and economic transformation. This included anti-corruption measures, currency exchange rate regulation, and foreign investment laws. Afghanistan, under the Taliban government, has also made efforts to improve revenue collection and reduce corruption. However, the country continues to face challenges in accessing international aid and investment due to concerns over human rights abuses and the treatment of women.

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