Austria-Hungary, Germany: Friend Or Foe?

The relationship between Germany and Austria-Hungary has historically been complex and multi-faceted. Both countries have a long shared history, with the ruling dynasty of Austria, the Habsburgs, inheriting the Hungarian throne in the 16th century. They were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1867 to 1918 and established diplomatic relations in 1921 after their separation. The two countries are now members of the European Union and share a 366-kilometre border. In the context of World War I, the relationship between Germany and Austria-Hungary was characterised by an alliance, with Germany seeing it as a way to prevent isolation and preserve peace. However, the reality was more complicated, with mutual mistrust, competing war aims, and a lack of military-strategic cooperation.

Vienna and Berlin's brotherhood in arms

The relationship between Vienna and Berlin was further strained by their differing aims and rivalry. Vienna often overestimated Germany's potential, while Germany sometimes underestimated the strength of the old Habsburg Monarchy. This became evident in the lack of military-strategic cooperation between the two allies on the eve of World War I. The respective military staffs operated in secrecy, allowing each other little access to their strategic and logistic affairs. When war broke out, Austria-Hungary's unpreparedness became clear, and the country quickly became heavily dependent on Germany militarily and economically, resulting in a loss of independence in military and foreign policy.

Despite the challenges, the two countries maintained a public emphasis on loyalty and alliance. However, off the record, the Austrian Chief of General Staff, Conrad von Hötzendorf, referred to Germany as "our secret enemy". The complex dynamics between Vienna and Berlin illustrate the intricate balance of power and the competing interests that shaped their relationship during this period.

Mutual mistrust during the war

The relationship between Germany and Austria-Hungary during World War I was characterised by mutual mistrust. Despite their alliance, the two nations had differing aims and strategies, and their partnership was one of convenience rather than a true brotherhood in arms.

The roots of this mistrust can be traced back to the political unification of Germany in 1871, which made it the dominant power in Central Europe. Austria-Hungary, on the other hand, was a multi-national empire that had suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Prussians in 1866 and was forced to take second place to its more powerful neighbour. This dynamic created an inherent power imbalance within the alliance, with Germany as the senior partner and Austria-Hungary as a junior partner dependent on Germany in both foreign and domestic policy.

As the war progressed, the cracks in the alliance began to show. Austria-Hungary, an agricultural state, struggled with mobilisation, and its army faced significant problems with supplies and reinforcements. The Austrian army became increasingly reliant on German assistance, and by the summer of 1916, the supreme command had been taken over entirely by the Germans, who now had the final say over Austrian generals.

The lack of trust between the two nations was evident in their lack of cooperation and transparency. The respective military staffs operated in secrecy, sharing as little information as possible with each other. This rivalry and lack of coordination undermined their alliance and revealed the underlying tensions and mistrust.

While publicly, both sides emphasised the emotive slogan of "Nibelung loyalty", privately, the Austrian Chief of General Staff, Conrad von Hötzendorf, referred to Germany as "our secret enemy". This dichotomy highlights the complex and mistrustful nature of the relationship between Germany and Austria-Hungary during the war.

The war exposed the inherent weaknesses and differences between the two nations, and the alliance was strained by their divergent goals and strategies. Germany's focus was primarily on the conflict with France, while Austria-Hungary was more concerned with Serbia and the Balkans. The absence of concrete agreements and shared objectives further contributed to the mutual mistrust and revealed the fragile nature of their alliance.

Austria-Hungary's dependence on Germany

The relationship between Austria-Hungary and Germany was complicated, and the two nations were "unequally matched 'brothers' who had differing aims and were sometimes even rivals. Following the Dual Alliance of 1879, Vienna and Berlin became closely associated, although Austria-Hungary was the junior partner. This was particularly clear in foreign policy terms, as the unification of Germany in 1871 made it the dominant power in Central Europe. The dependence of the Habsburg Monarchy on the Hohenzollern empire also made the German element predominant in the multi-ethnic state, and German-speaking populations were split in their identification with Austria and Germany.

When war broke out in 1914, the relationship between Germany and Austria-Hungary was reduced to the slogan “Nibelung loyalty”. This concealed the reality, which was characterised by mutual mistrust due to the absence of military success and competing war aims. During the war, the exhausted Habsburg Monarchy became heavily dependent both militarily and economically on the German Empire, which ultimately led to a loss of independence in military and foreign policy.

Secondly, the rise of the unified German Empire from 1871 onwards was viewed with ambivalence in Vienna. While there was a secret admiration for Prussian militarism and the Reich was often used as a model for economic development, Austrian self-respect was eroded by having to admit to taking second place. This dynamic also caused domestic political problems, as the strengthening radical wing of the German nationalist movement in the Habsburg Monarchy increasingly became oriented towards Berlin rather than Vienna.

Thirdly, Germany, as a young nation-state, lacked understanding and sympathy for the complex structures and specific problems of the multi-national Habsburg Monarchy. The Prussians thought that Austria-Hungary was past its prime, a relic of the dynastic politics of bygone centuries. This led to a number of misjudgements on both sides concerning their respective strengths and weaknesses. While Vienna often overestimated Germany’s actual potential, Germany sometimes underestimated the strength of the old Habsburg Monarchy.

Finally, there was a lack of military-strategic cooperation between the two allies on the eve of the war. The respective military staffs operated in secrecy and allowed each other as little access as possible to their own strategic and logistic affairs. It was only when the war began that it became necessary to play with open cards to coordinate a common strategy. This lack of coordination was evident in the summer of 1916 when supreme command was taken over entirely by the Germans, who then had the final say over the Austrian generals.

The Habsburg Monarchy

The history of the Habsburg Monarchy can be traced back to the election of Rudolf I as King of Germany in 1273 and his acquisition of the Duchy of Austria for the Habsburgs in 1282. Rudolf I, a Habsburg, objected to King Ottokar II of Bohemia’s refusal to accept his authority. Rudolf decided to take a practical approach and defeated Ottokar in battle, thus taking possession of a small Duchy called Austria for his crown, which included a place called Vienna.

Across the subsequent 650 years, the Habsburg family accumulated more and more possessions and titles. The lands making up this “empire” (and the relationships between them) changed continuously due to weddings, wars, inheritances, family divisions, and political agreements. Despite these changes, certain regions featured regularly throughout the period of Habsburg rule, including:

• The traditional hereditary lands: much of modern-day Austria and Slovenia, with adjoining bits of Bavaria and Italy. This core group of dominions included Vienna.
• Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia: most of today’s Czechia and southwest Poland.
• Hungary: not just today’s Hungary, but also Slovakia, Romania, and northern parts of ex-Yugoslavia.

The Habsburg realms were unified in 1804 with the formation of the Austrian Empire and later split in two with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The monarchy began to fracture in the face of inevitable defeat during the final years of World War I and ultimately disbanded with the proclamation of the Republic of German-Austria and the First Hungarian Republic in late 1918.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich, established a dual monarchy with two co-equal states conducting unified diplomatic and defence policies. This compromise gave Hungary greater autonomy, including its own parliament and authority over most internal affairs, while the monarchy retained authority over foreign affairs, defence, and finance. The Empire also included the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, an autonomous region under the Hungarian crown, and after 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under joint Austro-Hungarian rule.

In terms of foreign policy, the Austro-Hungarian Empire sought to expand its influence in the Balkans, competing with Russia for dominance in the region. This rivalry contributed to the outbreak of World War I, which began with an Austro-Hungarian declaration of war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. The Empire played a relatively passive diplomatic role during the war, increasingly dominated and controlled by its ally, Germany. The war effort strained the Empire's economy and exacerbated ethnic tensions, ultimately leading to its dissolution in 1918.

The end of the war saw the Empire's territory divided among several newly formed states, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Italy, and Romania. The Kingdom of Hungary and the Republic of Austria were recognised as the legal successors to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, but both lost significant territory and population in the post-war treaties.

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