French And Angolan Imperial Legacies: Power And Colony

Angola was a Portuguese colony from 1575 until 1975, when it became the independent People's Republic of Angola. The Portuguese established a colony at Luanda in 1575, and the settlement was granted city status in 1605. From 1580 to the 1820s, over a million people from Angola were exported as slaves, and from the 1920s to the 1960s, strong economic growth, abundant natural resources, and infrastructure development led to the arrival of even more Portuguese settlers.

The French colonial empire was comprised of overseas colonies, protectorates, and mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onwards. The First French Colonial Empire existed until 1814, and the Second French Colonial Empire began with the conquest of Algiers in 1830. The French established a few colonies and trading posts on the African continent, with initial colonial projects in Senegal, Madagascar, and along the Mascarene Islands. The French colonial empire began to fall during World War II, and most of the remaining colonies gained independence after 1960.

Portuguese explorers reached the Kingdom of Kongo in 1482/1483

The history of Angola is rooted in the Kingdom of Kongo, which was founded around 1390 CE through the political marriage of Nima a Nzima and Luqueni Luansanze, cementing an alliance between two KiKongo-speaking peoples. The kingdom reached its peak in the mid-1600s and was centred around the great city of Mbanza Kongo, located in what is now northern Angola.

In 1482, the Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão made first contact with King Nzinga a Nkuwu of the Kingdom of Kongo. A year later, in 1483, Portuguese explorers reached the Kingdom of Kongo and established diplomatic relations. Cão left some of his men in Kongo and took Kongo nobles to Portugal. He returned to Kongo with the Kongo nobles in 1485.

In 1491, Cão returned to Kongo with the Kongo nobles, as well as Catholic priests and soldiers. Nzinga a Nkuwu decided to become Christian and took the name João I in honour of Portugal's king at the time, João II. João I ruled until his death around 1509 and was succeeded by his son Afonso Mvemba a Nzinga, who took the Christian name Afonso I.

The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Kingdom of Kongo and Portugal marked the beginning of a complex relationship that would shape the history of Angola. The Kingdom of Kongo became a Portuguese colony in the early 1900s, and Angola gained independence in 1975.

Angola was a Portuguese colony from 1575 until 1975

The Portuguese colony of Angola was founded in 1575 by Paulo Dias de Novais, who arrived with 100 families of colonists and 400 soldiers. They established a settlement at Luanda, which was granted city status in 1605. Benguela was fortified in 1587 and became a township in 1617. Angola was incorporated as a Portuguese colony in 1655 or on 12 May 1886.

The Portuguese were interested in trade, particularly the slave trade. They established peaceful and profitable relations with the rulers and nobles of the Kongo Kingdom, with whom they shared the benefits of the slave trade. Kings João I and Afonso I studied Christianity and learned Portuguese, in turn Christianising their nation.

From 1580 to the 1820s, over a million people from Angola were exported as slaves to the New World, mainly to Brazil but also to North America. The colony of Angola thus developed as a "gigantic slave-trading enterprise".

In the 17th century, Portugal and the Kongo Kingdom had a military confrontation due to conflicting economic interests. Portugal defeated the Kongo Kingdom in the Battle of Mbwila in 1665 but suffered a disastrous defeat when they tried to invade Kongo in 1670. Control of most of the central highlands was achieved in the 18th century, and full control of the entire territory was not achieved until the beginning of the 20th century.

In 1951, the Portuguese Colony of Angola became an overseas province of Portugal. In 1972, Angola's status was changed again to an autonomous state with authority over some internal affairs, while Portugal retained responsibility for defence and foreign relations.

Angola gained independence in 1975, becoming the People's Republic of Angola.

Angola's independence was followed by a 27-year civil war

The MPLA was primarily an urban-based movement in Luanda and its surrounding area. It was largely composed of Mbundu people. By contrast, the other two major anti-colonial movements, the FNLA and UNITA, were rural groups. The FNLA primarily consisted of Bakongo people from Northern Angola. UNITA, an offshoot of the FNLA, was mainly composed of Ovimbundu people, Angola's largest ethnic group, from the Bié Plateau.

The MPLA and UNITA soon found new international backers as they competed to control the emerging state. Zaire, China, and the US sent arms to the FNLA and UNITA, and the USSR and Cuba, which also sent soldiers, to the MPLA. The war became increasingly conventional between internationally aided forces in a race to control the capital, Luanda.

The 27-year war can be divided roughly into three periods of major fighting: from 1975 to 1991, 1992 to 1994, and from 1998 to 2002, with fragile periods of peace. By the time the MPLA achieved victory in 2002, between 500,000 and 800,000 people had died, and over one million had been internally displaced. The war devastated Angola's infrastructure and severely damaged public administration, the economy, and religious institutions.

The Angolan Civil War was notable due to the combination of Angola's violent internal dynamics and the exceptional degree of foreign military and political involvement. The war is widely considered a Cold War proxy conflict, as the Soviet Union and the United States, with their respective allies Cuba and South Africa, assisted the opposing factions.

The conflict became closely intertwined with the Second Congo War in the neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo and the South African Border War. Land mines still litter the countryside and contribute to ongoing civilian casualties.

Angola's economy is among the fastest-growing in the world

Post-Civil War Economic Growth

Angola's economy has moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of civil war to become one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. From 2001 to 2010, Angola had the world's highest annual average GDP growth at 11.1%. In 2005, the economy grew by 18%, by 26% in 2006, and 17.6% in 2007. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement allowed for the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, resulting in large-scale increases in agricultural production.

Oil and Diamond Exports

Angola's economy is heavily dependent on the oil sector, which in 2017 accounted for over 90% of exports by value and 64% of government revenue. Oil production and supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% of GDP. Angola is the third-largest producer of diamonds in Africa and has only explored 40% of its diamond-rich territory. Diamond production generates over $650 million annually.

Economic Challenges

Despite its economic growth, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. High poverty rates and blatant social inequality are partly the result of almost continual armed conflict since 1961. Angola's economy is vulnerable to external shocks and undermined by macroeconomic instability. The country's dependence on the oil sector has stunted the non-oil economy and limited economic diversification and job creation. Angola's agricultural sector, which accounts for 11% of GDP but 70% of total employment, has been negatively impacted by severe wartime conditions, including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside.

Angola is a member of the United Nations, African Union, Community of Portuguese Language Countries, and Southern African Development Community

Angola is a member of several international organisations, including the United Nations, the African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, and the Southern African Development Community.

The United Nations is an international organisation that aims to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, and achieve international cooperation. Angola was elected as a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council in 2014 and 2015.

The African Union is a continental body consisting of 55 member states located on the African continent. It was established in 2002 and focuses on promoting political and economic integration, peace and security, and social and economic development in Africa.

The Community of Portuguese Language Countries, also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, is an international organisation that promotes cooperation among Lusophone nations. Angola is a founding member of this community, which was established in 1996. The other founding members include Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal, and São Tomé and Príncipe.

The Southern African Development Community is an inter-governmental organisation that aims to promote economic growth, peace and security, and socio-economic integration in Southern Africa. It has 16 members, including Angola, Namibia, Zambia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which are Angola's neighbouring countries.

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