America-Bolivia: Allies Or Not?

Bolivia and the United States have had a complex relationship, with diplomatic ties established in 1849 following Bolivia's independence from Spain. The two countries have had periods of cooperation and tension, influenced by various factors such as drug policy, political differences, and economic interests. While the US and Bolivia maintain diplomatic relations and share membership in international organizations, their relationship has experienced challenges and fluctuations over the years.

History of diplomatic relations

The history of diplomatic relations between America and Bolivia dates back to the 19th century. Here is a detailed breakdown of their diplomatic history:

Early Diplomatic Relations

America and Bolivia's diplomatic relations can be traced back to the early 19th century, shortly after Bolivia's independence from Spain in 1825. In 1837, the United States recognised the Peru-Bolivian Confederation and appointed its first ambassador, James B. Thornton, to the region. However, this confederation dissolved in 1839, leading to a pause in formal diplomatic ties.

Official Recognition and Diplomatic Relations

On May 30, 1848, the United States officially recognised Bolivia as a sovereign state, appointing John Appleton as the Chargé d'Affaires. Diplomatic relations were established on January 3, 1849, when Appleton presented his credentials to the Bolivian government. This marked the beginning of formal diplomatic relations between the two countries.

Elevation of Diplomatic Missions

In 1942, the diplomatic missions of both countries were elevated to embassy status. This reflected the growing importance of the relationship between the United States and Bolivia. The change took effect on March 31, 1942, when the Bolivian Ambassador, Señor Dr. Don Luis Fernando Guachalla, presented his credentials to the United States government.

Strained Relations and Expulsion of Diplomats

The election of Evo Morales as President of Bolivia in 2006 caused tensions between the two countries. Morales' policies, including the legalisation of coca leaf use and nationalisation of industries, conflicted with US interests. In 2008, Morales expelled the US ambassador, Philip S. Goldberg, accusing him of conspiring against democracy. The Bolivian ambassador to Washington, Gustavo Guzman, was also expelled in retaliation.

Recent Developments

In November 2019, after allegations of fraud in Bolivia's general election, Evo Morales resigned as President, and Senator Jeanine Áñez took power. The Áñez administration worked to improve relations with the United States, appointing a temporary ambassador for the first time in over a decade. However, relations deteriorated again after the victory of socialist candidate Luis Arce in the October 2020 election. The arrest of Áñez and her cabinet ministers in March 2021 further strained ties, with the Arce administration accusing the United States of interfering in Bolivia's internal affairs.

Drug policy

The United States has been a long-standing consumer of Bolivian exports and a partner in development projects. However, the election of Evo Morales as president in 2006 strained relations between the two countries. Morales, who came to power as the head of a trade union of coca growers, campaigned against coca eradication on behalf of the growers, citing the legitimate uses of coca leaves in traditional Aymara and Quechua culture. This directly conflicted with the eradication policy of the United States.

In 2008, the Bolivian government expelled the US ambassador, Philip Goldberg, declaring him "persona non grata". In response, the US expelled the Bolivian ambassador to Washington, Gustavo Guzman.

The US has been heavily involved in Bolivia's drug policy and law enforcement. In 1988, a new law, Law 1008, recognised only 12,000 hectares in the Yungas as sufficient to meet the licit demand for coca. The law also explicitly stated that coca grown in the Chapare region was unnecessary to meet traditional demand and called for the eradication of all "excess" coca.

To achieve this goal, successive Bolivian governments offered cash compensation to coca farmers who eradicated their crops voluntarily and promoted suitable alternative crops. Beginning in 1997, the government adopted a more effective policy of physically uprooting the illegal coca plants, and Bolivia's illegal coca production fell by up to 90% over the next four years. This plan, referred to as Plan Dignidad, was based on the concept of "shared responsibility with the international community" and included four pillars of action: alternative development, prevention and rehabilitation, eradication, and interdiction.

However, this "forced" eradication remains controversial, and well-organised coca growers' unions have blocked roads, harassed police eradicators, and occasionally used violence to protest the policy. In response, previous government security forces have used force, resulting in human rights abuses. The Morales government has since embarked on a policy of voluntary eradication and social control, which has reduced violent confrontations between police and coca growers/distributors.

In 2017, Bolivia amended the General Law on Coca (Law 906), increasing licit coca production from 12,000 to 22,000 hectares. Despite these changes, Bolivia remains the third-largest producer of cocaine in the world and produces well above its own sanctioned limit.

The US continues to support counter-narcotics efforts in Bolivia, providing funding and technical assistance to law enforcement agencies and antinarcotics police. However, there have been concerns about human rights abuses committed by US-supported Bolivian security forces, as well as the impact of US counternarcotics pressure on Bolivia's laws, institutions, and policies.

Economic relations

The United States is one of Bolivia's top trade partners, with about about $1 billion in bilateral goods trade in 2022. The two countries do not have a free trade agreement. The US exports to Bolivia include mineral oils/fuels, plastic materials, food preparations, halogenated olefins, heavy machinery, automobiles, and pharmaceuticals. The US is Bolivia's fifth-largest import market and eleventh-largest export market. US imports from Bolivia include raw tin, mineral ores, cereals, nuts, and tungsten.

Bolivia generally allows foreign direct investment. An investment promotion law adopted in 2014 guarantees equal treatment for national and foreign firms but stipulates that public investment has priority over private investment. Under the law, the Bolivian government will determine which sectors require private investment. Bolivia abrogated its Bilateral Investment Treaties with the US and multiple other countries in 2012. From 2008 to 2016, the Bolivian government nationalized numerous companies that had been privatized in the 1990s. US foreign direct investment in Bolivia is about $430 million, mainly in the oil, gas, and manufacturing sectors. Weak judicial recourse, corruption, and unclear investment incentives make investment in Bolivia challenging. The US-Bolivia Air Transport Agreement from 1947 remains in force with multiple amendments.

Bolivia's economic policy has a heavy economic component. The country has become more active in the Organization of American States (OAS), the Rio Group, and in MERCOSUR, with which it signed an association agreement in 1996. Bolivia promotes its policies on sustainable development and the empowerment of indigenous people.

Bolivia is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for US military personnel. Bolivia and the US are also members of several of the same international organizations, including the United Nations, Organization of American States, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization.

International relations

Bolivia and the United States have had a complex relationship, with diplomatic ties established in 1849 following Bolivia's independence from Spain. The two countries have had periods of cooperation and tension, influenced by various factors such as drug policy, political ideologies, and economic interests.

Historically, the United States and Bolivia have had strong economic ties, with the US being a long-standing consumer of Bolivian exports and a partner in development projects. In 1991, the US forgave over $350 million in debt owed by Bolivia to US agencies. However, tensions arose in the early 2000s due to disagreements over drug policy and the election of Evo Morales as President of Bolivia. Morales, a former trade union leader of coca growers, opposed coca eradication policies advocated by the US. In 2008, the Bolivian government expelled the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the US ambassador, accusing them of violating the country's sovereignty and supporting an attempted coup.

During Morales' presidency, Bolivia maintained strong ties with countries such as Russia, Venezuela, Cuba, Syria, and Iran, and was publicly critical of US policies. Relations between the two countries further deteriorated in 2013 when Bolivian President Evo Morales' plane was denied passage over European countries due to unsubstantiated rumours that US whistleblower Edward Snowden was on board. Morales accused the US of pressuring European countries to prevent his passage and threatened to close the US Embassy in La Paz.

Despite these challenges, the United States has expressed a commitment to maintaining a strong and respectful relationship with the Bolivian people. In 2019, after Evo Morales resigned amid accusations of fraud in the general election, the interim government of Jeanine Áñez improved relations with the US. However, relations worsened again after the election of socialist candidate Luis Arce in 2020. The US has also provided humanitarian assistance to Bolivia, including support for natural disaster response and aid for Venezuelan refugees.

Bolivia and the US are members of several international organizations, including the United Nations, the Organization of American States, the World Trade Organization, and the International Monetary Fund. The US Embassy in Bolivia is located in La Paz, and the country continues to provide various services to US citizens and businesses, including economic and political information.

Human rights

Political Interference and Judiciary Independence

Bolivia's justice system has been plagued by political interference, with both the interim government of Jeanine Áñez and the current administration of Luis Arce accused of misusing broad definitions of "terrorism" to prosecute political opponents. The Áñez administration was also criticised for adopting measures that threatened fundamental human rights standards, such as a decree shielding military personnel from accountability for abuses during crowd-control operations. This decree was later repealed due to international pressure and condemnation.

The Bolivian justice system has long been criticised for its corruption, delays, and political interference. While the Morales administration sought to implement reforms, some initiatives raised concerns about further jeopardising judicial independence. For example, the Magistrate's Council ruled in 2017 that judges appointed before the 2009 constitution could be summarily removed, leading to the dismissal of roughly 100 judges without transparency or opportunity to challenge their removal.

Violence Against Women and Indigenous Peoples' Rights

Women and girls in Bolivia remain at high risk of gender-based violence and face barriers to accessing reproductive rights. Despite legislation aimed at preventing and prosecuting violence against women, femicide and gender-based violence persist. Indigenous Peoples continue to face challenges in exercising their right to free, prior, and informed consent regarding measures that may affect them, particularly in the context of unregulated mining activities and the disposal of mercury from gold mining projects.

Freedom of Expression and Assembly

Bolivia has seen attacks and threats against journalists during protests, with civil organisations documenting attacks on 75 journalists in 2023. Additionally, several news outlets had to temporarily cease broadcasting due to attacks during post-electoral violent protests. While public debate is robust, the Morales administration was criticised for periodically lashing out at journalists, accusing them of publishing lies and distortions without presenting evidence.

Due Process and Prison Conditions

Bolivia's prisons are overcrowded, with approximately 66% of detainees being held in pre-trial detention or facing trial delays. This has led to inhumane conditions, and in some cases, instances of torture and other ill-treatment. The UN Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture highlighted the vulnerability of inmates to "systemic forms" of exploitation due to the delegation of authority to inmates and corruption within the prison system.

International Relations and Human Rights

The United States has expressed concern about anti-democratic actions and the politicisation of the legal system in Bolivia. However, the US has also been accused of human rights violations itself, particularly in the context of the "War on Drugs" and the pressure placed on Bolivia to curb its illegal drug trade. The Bolivian government, under Evo Morales, prioritised the rights of coca growers and the traditional uses of coca leaves, which conflicted with US eradication policies. This led to strained relations and accusations of political interference from both sides.

Frequently asked questions