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The Austrian Anschluss of 1938 was a significant event in history, marking the annexation of the Federal State of Austria into Nazi Germany. This event, also known as the Annexation of Austria, was the culmination of years of political tension and power struggles between Austria and Germany. The idea of a united Austria and Germany, or Greater Germany, had been proposed as early as 1919, but it was Hitler's rise to power that brought this concept to the forefront. The Austrian Anschluss was a critical step in Hitler's expansionist agenda and had far-reaching consequences for Europe, setting the stage for the Second World War and shaping the geopolitical landscape of the region.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date | 12 March 1938 |
| Type of event | Annexation of the Federal State of Austria into Nazi Germany |
| Alternative name | Anschluß Österreichs |
| People involved | Austrian chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg, Austrian president Wilhelm Miklas, Nazi leader Adolf Hitler, Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart, Benito Mussolini, German ambassador Franz von Papen |
| Events leading up to the Anschluss | Austrian chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss was assassinated by Austrian Nazis in 1934; Austrian chancellor Schuschnigg announced a referendum on a possible union with Germany in 1938; Schuschnigg called a plebiscite on Austrian independence scheduled for 13 March 1938; Hitler gave the Austrian government a series of ultimatums on 11 March 1938 |
| Outcome | Hitler ordered the invasion of Austria on 12 March 1938; Austria's parliament formally approved the annexation; Austria became a province of Germany |
| Impact | The Anschluss marked an important milestone for the solidification of Austria's independent national identity in the following decades |
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What You'll Learn
Hitler's foreign policy and the Nazi desire for unification
Hitler's foreign policy was driven by his goal of establishing a new racial order in Europe, dominated by the German "master race". This vision, which he outlined in his autobiography, *Mein Kampf*, involved the acquisition of Lebensraum ("living space") in Eastern Europe, where the ""inferior" Slavic population would be enslaved or driven out, and Jews would be removed entirely. To achieve this, Hitler aimed to undo the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles, incorporate territories with ethnic German populations into the Reich, form alliances, and persuade other states to participate in the "final solution".
Hitler's desire for unification was a key part of his foreign policy. The concept of "Heim ins Reich" ("back home to the realm") sought to incorporate as many Volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans outside Germany) as possible into a ""Greater Germany". This idea of unification was integral to the Nazi Party Platform as early as 1920, which stated:
> "We demand the union of all Germans in a Greater Germany (Großdeutschland) on the basis of the right of national self-determination."
Hitler's desire for unification was particularly focused on Austria, which had been excluded from the unification of Germany in 1871. In his writings and speeches, Hitler expressed his support for an Austro-German union, stating that "German-Austria must be restored to the great German Motherland…People of the same blood should be in the same REICH".
In the lead-up to the Anschluss, Hitler and the Nazis worked to undermine the Austrian government, which opposed unification. Austrian Nazis carried out terrorist attacks and attempted a coup in 1934, resulting in the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. Despite the failure of the coup, the Nazis continued to cultivate pro-unification tendencies in Austria, and many leading Austrian Nazis went into exile in Germany, where they continued to push for unification.
In early 1938, Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg attempted to reassert Austrian independence by calling for a plebiscite (referendum) on the issue of unification. However, he was pressured by Hitler and ultimately gave in to his demands, resigning on March 11, 1938. German troops entered Austria the next day, and the annexation of Austria was proclaimed on March 13, marking the first act of territorial expansion by Nazi Germany.
The Anschluss was a significant demonstration of Hitler's expansionary policies and his desire for unification. It violated the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which expressly forbade the unification of Austria and Germany, and it allowed Hitler to continue his foreign policy goals unchecked.
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Diplomatic isolation and the failure of Austrian independence
By the winter of 1937–1938, Austria found itself diplomatically isolated. The international community showed little interest in maintaining Austrian independence. Both the French and the British had accepted an Austro-German union as inevitable. The Dollfuss regime’s brutal repression of Austrian Social Democrats in February 1934 had not won them many friends in countries like Britain and France. Even Mussolini, who initially treated Austria as a buffer between Italy and Nazi Germany, was no longer a reliable guarantor of Austrian independence. By 1936, the damage to Austria from the German boycott was too great. That summer, Austrian chancellor Schuschnigg told Mussolini that his country had to come to an agreement with Germany.
In early 1938, Austrian Nazis conspired for the second time in four years to seize the Austrian government by force and unite their nation with Nazi Germany. Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg, learning of the conspiracy, met with Nazi leader Adolf Hitler in the hopes of reasserting his country’s independence. However, he was bullied into naming several top Austrian Nazis to his cabinet and agreeing to Hitler's demands that Austria's foreign and military policies be coordinated with Germany's. Hitler also demanded that Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart be placed in charge of policing and security matters and that Austrian Nazis who had been imprisoned by the Austrian government be amnestied.
On March 9, Schuschnigg called a national vote to resolve the question of Anschluss, or “annexation,” once and for all. He attempted to assert Austrian independence one last time by calling a plebiscite (referendum) on Austrian independence. The plebiscite was scheduled for Sunday, March 13, 1938. The referendum asked voters to support or reject the following call for Austrian independence:
> For a free and German, independent and social, for a Christian and united Austria! For peace and work and the equality of all who profess the Volk and Fatherland.
Hitler was infuriated by the plebiscite and decided to take action. On March 11, he gave the Austrian government a series of ultimatums: Chancellor Schuschnigg must call off the plebiscite; Austrian president Wilhelm Miklas must appoint Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart as the new Austrian chancellor; and all imprisoned Austrian Nazis must be released. If these demands were not met, the German military would invade Austria.
Faced with the threat of invasion, Schuschnigg gave in to pressure from Hitler and resigned on March 11. In his resignation address, under coercion from the Nazis, he pleaded with Austrian forces not to resist a German “advance” into the country. The German annexation of Austria took place over three days in March 1938. The peaceful nature of the Anschluss was due to a combination of factors, including Hitler's threat of a military attack, Mussolini's withdrawal of support for Austrian independence, Austria's lack of a modern army, and the lack of response from the international community.
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The Nazi threat to Austria and the attempted coup in 1934
The Nazi threat to Austria had been clear for years, and in 1934, it culminated in an attempted coup. On 25 July 1934, Austrian chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss was assassinated by Austrian Nazis in a failed coup attempt. This event, known as the July Putsch, resulted in several days of fighting across Austria and a significant loss of life.
In the lead-up to the coup, there were increasing tensions in Austria. The Austrian Civil War in February 1934 between the Dollfuss regime and the Social Democrats highlighted the divide in the country. The brutal repression of the Social Democrats by Dollfuss's government further alienated them from countries like Britain and France, who had previously been sympathetic to Austria's independence.
The Nazi Party in Austria, emboldened by Hitler's rise to power in Germany the previous year, sought to undermine the Austrian government, which was controlled by the Fatherland Front and opposed unification with Germany. The Nazis' desire for unification was an integral part of their "Heim ins Reich" ("back home to the realm") concept, which aimed to create a Greater Germany that included ethnic Germans outside of Germany's borders.
The attempted coup in July 1934 was a direct result of these tensions. Disguised as soldiers and policemen, 154 SS men pushed into the Austrian chancellery, and Dollfuss was assassinated by Nazi Otto Planetta. The coup ultimately failed, and many leading Austrian Nazis fled to Germany, where they continued to push for unification. The remaining Nazis in Austria carried out terrorist attacks against governmental institutions, resulting in a death toll of over 800 between 1934 and 1938.
Dollfuss's successor, Kurt Schuschnigg, struggled to maintain Austrian independence in the face of increasing pressure from pro-unification activists within Austria. Schuschnigg attempted to suppress Nazi supporters using police force and internment camps, but he was unable to prevent the eventual annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938, known as the Anschluss.
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The role of Mussolini and the Rome-Berlin Axis
The Rome-Berlin Axis was a military coalition between Italy and Germany, with the shared aim of asserting themselves as revisionist powers in the interwar period. The relationship between the two countries, and their leaders, was complex and intricate.
Initially, Mussolini was a guarantor of Austrian independence, treating the country as a buffer between Italy and Nazi Germany. However, in 1935-1936, Mussolini began to pressure Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg to cooperate with the Germans. Mussolini informed Hitler that he supported the anti-Marxist government of Engelbert Dollfuss, and was opposed to the annexation of Austria. However, by 1936, Austria was struggling with the economic impact of the German boycott, and Schuschnigg was forced to come to an agreement with Germany. In July 1936, he signed an agreement with the German ambassador, agreeing to release Nazis imprisoned in Austria, while Germany promised to respect Austrian sovereignty.
In 1938, Mussolini's role as the arbiter at Munich, and the signing of the Anglo-Italian agreement, confused relations between Germany and Italy. The independence of Austria was the most significant issue to divide the two countries. Mussolini was keen to 'save' Austria to prevent a Nazi force from encroaching on the South Tyrol. However, by 1938, Austria was diplomatically isolated and facing an increasingly aggressive Nazi Germany. The international community, including France and Britain, had accepted an Austro-German union as inevitable.
Mussolini's role in the Rome-Berlin Axis during the Austrian Anschluss was complex and influenced by a desire to protect Italian interests and maintain a solid relationship with Germany in the face of changing circumstances in Europe.
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The German invasion and the plebiscite in March 1938
The German invasion and plebiscite in March 1938 were pivotal moments in the lead-up to the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, known as the Anschluss. The events of these days demonstrated the determination and tactics of Nazi Germany, the vulnerability of Austria, and the lack of international will to intervene.
In early March 1938, Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg attempted to assert Austrian independence by calling for a plebiscite (referendum) on the issue, scheduled for March 13. This move was a last-ditch effort to prevent the German annexation of Austria and to show international support for Austrian independence. However, the German response was swift and aggressive.
Hitler was enraged by Schuschnigg's plebiscite and decided to act. On March 11, he delivered a series of ultimatums to the Austrian government, demanding that the plebiscite be called off and that Austrian President Wilhelm Miklas appoint a pro-Nazi Austrian, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, as the new chancellor. Hitler's threats included an invasion by the German military if these demands were not met.
Faced with the imminent threat of military action, Schuschnigg cancelled the plebiscite and resigned on March 11, pleading with Austrian forces not to resist the German advance. Hitler then ordered the invasion to commence at dawn on March 12. The speed and decisiveness of Hitler's actions caught many by surprise, despite the long-standing Nazi threat to Austria.
The international community's lack of intervention during this crisis is also notable. France, Britain, and Italy, each had their own political turmoil or were pursuing appeasement policies, leaving Austria without significant external support for its independence. This isolation made Austria even more vulnerable to German aggression.
In conclusion, the German invasion and plebiscite of March 1938 were critical moments in the annexation of Austria. They showcased Nazi Germany's aggressive tactics, Austria's diplomatic isolation, and the international community's failure to prevent the expansion of Hitler's regime. These events set the stage for the formal annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, known as the Anschluss, which occurred on March 12, 1938.
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Frequently asked questions
The Anschluss was important because it marked the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, which was a significant expansion of Hitler's territory and a demonstration of his aggressive foreign policy.
The Anschluss marked a terrible turning point for Austria's approximately 200,000 Jews. They faced pogrom-like violence, attacks, and humiliation at the hands of Austrian Nazis.
The Austrian Anschluss took place during a time of political turmoil in France and Britain, and neither country was in a position to oppose the invasion. The British population was also against the idea of another European war, and some even supported a unified Germany and Austria.
The Austrian State Treaty and its subsequent declaration of permanent neutrality were important milestones in solidifying Austria's independent national identity in the decades following the Anschluss.
The idea of a unified Austria and Germany, or "Anschluss," had been proposed as early as 1919, but it gained support after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. In the lead-up to the Anschluss, Hitler pressured Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg to cancel a plebiscite on Austrian independence and resign. German troops then invaded Austria and were met with cheers and flowers rather than resistance.
