The Bolivian Water Crisis: A Looming Threat

Bolivia has faced a number of challenges in providing its population with access to fresh water. While the country has made significant strides since 1990, it continues to suffer from low coverage and service quality. Factors such as political and institutional instability, privatisation, social unrest, and the impacts of climate change have all contributed to the issue. Bolivia's water resources are also affected by natural disasters, industrial and urban pollution, and agricultural practices. The country is working towards improving water management and increasing investment in hydraulic infrastructure, with the goal of achieving universal access to drinking water and sanitation services.

Poor water management

One example of poor water management in Bolivia was the privatisation of water in the late 1990s. The Bolivian government, influenced by free-market economic agendas, accepted loans from the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, which came with the requirement to privatise the nation's industries and natural resources. As a result, the government actively sought private investor management for Cochabamba's water and sewage services. This led to a 40-year concession being awarded to an international consortium headed by a US corporation, Aguas del Tunari, for Cochabamba's water and sanitation services.

The privatisation of water in Cochabamba had detrimental consequences for the local population. Aguas del Tunari significantly increased water rates, with some residents spending over 20% of their household income on water. This sparked widespread protests and the formation of the Coalition for the Defense of Water and Life (La Coordinadora), which represented a range of affected community groups. The protests escalated, with protest leaders demanding the cancellation of the water contract and changes to the national water law. The government initially responded with martial law, but eventually cancelled the contract and made changes to the legislation to address the demands of the people.

In addition to privatisation, Bolivia has also struggled with political and institutional instability in the water sector. There has been a lack of a clear legal and institutional framework, making it difficult to ensure appropriate water quality and quantity for different users. The country's water laws, such as the Water Law of 1906, have been vague and insufficient in addressing the complex issues surrounding water management. Attempts to modify the Water Law and create a new legal framework have been challenging, with various sectors involved in water use acting separately and following different laws.

The social unrest and conflicts over water management in Bolivia, often referred to as the "water wars", have had a significant impact on the country. They have led to a political shift and a stronger movement for political and economic autonomy. Additionally, the struggles over water have reinforced the people's sense of their right to this natural resource and their responsibility to manage it democratically.

To address the issues of poor water management, the Bolivian government has been working on developing an institutional and legal framework to increase participation, especially for rural and indigenous communities. The creation of the Environment and Water Resources Ministry in 2009 was a step towards improving water resources management and increasing investment in hydraulic infrastructure. However, there is still a need for substantial investment financing to improve access to water and sanitation services, especially in rural areas.

Climate change

Bolivia is a landlocked country in South America, with a population of around 11 million people. The country has a proud indigenous heritage and culture.

Bolivia's drinking water and sanitation coverage has improved since 1990, but it still suffers from the lowest coverage levels on the continent and low-quality services. The country's second-largest city, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, manages its water and sanitation system relatively successfully through cooperatives. However, in 2016, Bolivia experienced the worst drought in 25 years, leading to water rationing in La Paz and El Alto. This crisis affected 125,000 families and threatened agricultural land and cattle.

The availability of freshwater in Bolivia is influenced by various factors, including population growth, industrial development, and the expansion of irrigated agriculture. Climate change further exacerbates these challenges. Here are some ways in which climate change impacts Bolivia's freshwater resources:

Extreme Weather Events

Hydrometeorological extreme events, such as tropical storms and hailstorms, are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate change. These events can cause significant damage to infrastructure and disrupt water supply systems.

Droughts

Floods

Intense rainfall caused by climate change can lead to floods, resulting in infrastructural damage. The country lacks early warning systems and integrated water resources management, increasing the vulnerability of its population, especially those in unplanned settlements.

Glacier Retreat

Increasing temperatures have led to documented glacier retreat in Bolivia, such as the Chacaltaya glacier, which lost 82% of its surface area between 1982 and 2013. This retreat can increase seasonal runoff in the short term and make water supply more dependent on seasonal rainfall in the long term.

Impact on Agriculture

Health and Sanitation

Reduced access to safe water due to climate change can have detrimental effects on sanitation and overall health. It can also lead to the spread of infectious diseases related to water contamination.

Population growth

Bolivia's population in 2018 was 11.05 million. The country's population growth is one of the three major factors causing increasing water demand over the past century. The other two are industrial development and the expansion of irrigated agriculture.

According to UNESCO, in developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, public water withdrawal represents just 50-100 litres (13 to 26 gallons) per person per day. In regions with insufficient water resources, this figure may be as low as 20-60 litres (5 to 15 gallons) per day. In comparison, people in developed countries on average consume about ten times more water daily than those in developing countries.

The World Water Council predicts that by 2020, water use is expected to increase by 40%, and 17% more water will be required for food production to meet the needs of the growing population.

In 2015, 90% of the total population of Bolivia had access to "improved" water, or 97% and 76% in urban and rural areas, respectively. This means that 10% of the population of Bolivia, or 1.1 million people, did not have access to a safe drinking water source in 2015.

In 2018, Bolivia's district of San Pedro became the first district where Water For People, together with district partners, achieved water services for everyone — every family, clinic, and school.

In 2016, Bolivia suffered its worst drought in 25 years. The water shortages affected 125,000 families and 283,000 hectares of agriculture, and led to the declaration of a state of emergency.

Industrial development

Bolivia's water scarcity is a result of several factors, including climate change, population growth, and industrial development. While the country has made significant improvements in water supply and sanitation access since 1990, challenges remain, particularly in rural areas.

The industrial sector in Bolivia contributes to water scarcity through its water usage and pollution. In 1987, 5% of total water withdrawals were devoted to industrial use, a proportion that has likely increased with the country's economic development. Industrial activities, such as mining and manufacturing, require substantial water resources for their operations. Additionally, untreated effluents from industries contribute to the degradation of water quality. The release of untreated wastewater into rivers and other water bodies leads to increased pollution levels, negatively impacting both the environment and human health.

To address these issues, the Bolivian government and various organizations have implemented initiatives to improve wastewater management and reduce pollution. For example, the Ministry of Environment and Water (MMAyA) developed a National Strategy for Wastewater Management and Reuse in 2017, aiming to address water pollution and public health issues caused by low levels of wastewater treatment. This strategy promotes the reuse of wastewater within the concept of a circular economy. Additionally, the World Bank and other development partners are providing support to incorporate circular economy principles into the design of wastewater treatment plants, such as the one planned for La Paz.

Furthermore, the Bolivian government is working to increase investment in hydraulic infrastructure and improve water resources management. The creation of the Environment and Water Resources Ministry in 2009 demonstrates the government's commitment to addressing water-related issues. The ministry is responsible for planning, implementing, monitoring, evaluating, and funding plans and policies related to water resources management.

However, political and institutional instability has often hindered progress in the water sector. The privatization of water supply and sanitation during the late 1990s, for example, led to protests and social unrest, with many of the poorest neighbourhoods lacking access to the water network. The subsequent termination of privatization efforts and the return to public water utilities brought their own set of challenges, including water shortages and tariff increases.

Overall, industrial development in Bolivia has contributed to water scarcity through its water usage and pollution. The country is taking steps to improve wastewater management and reduce the negative impacts on the environment and human health. However, political and institutional challenges continue to impact the progress and effectiveness of these efforts.

Irrigation agriculture

Impacts of Irrigation Agriculture

The impacts of irrigation agriculture are far-reaching in Bolivia, especially in terms of rural development. Bolivia is one of the poorest countries in Latin America, with a history of extreme poverty and income inequality. Irrigation agriculture aims to address these issues by increasing food security, supply to markets, productivity, and income generation, ultimately reducing migration and promoting rural development.

Irrigation Infrastructure

Bolivia has approximately 226,500 irrigated hectares, which is about 11% of its total agricultural land. The country is home to around 5,000 irrigation systems, most of which are located in the southern and southwestern areas (Valles and Altiplano). These systems rely on rainfall and have limited regulatory mechanisms like dams, making them vulnerable to seasonal variations in rainfall. The overall efficiency of these systems ranges from 18-30% in traditional setups to 35-50% in improved systems.

Linkages with Water Resources

Irrigation accounts for a significant 94% of water withdrawals in Bolivia, amounting to about 2,000 million cubic meters annually. The country is divided into three main areas: the eastern tropical and subtropical region, the western arid and semi-arid region, and the Titicaca basin. The hydrographic system consists of three large basins: the Amazon Basin (66% of Bolivia's territory), the closed basin (13%), and the Rio Plata Basin (21%).

Environmental Impacts

The environmental impacts of irrigated agriculture in Bolivia are significant. Soil erosion and pollution due to agricultural runoff are major concerns, with nearly 41% of the country's territory suffering a loss of production capacity due to erosion. Agricultural runoff, along with municipal wastewater and industrial and mining activities, contribute to water pollution. The lack of regulations and controls over dumping from non-specific sources further exacerbates this issue.

History of the Irrigation Sector

Historically, Bolivia's agricultural sector has faced challenges due to the focus on the mining sector and a lack of investment in agriculture. The 1985 economic reform aimed to transition to a distortion-free market economy, but some reforms were ill-informed, particularly regarding the lack of governmental intervention in providing necessary public goods for agricultural development. As a result, the sector has struggled with limited human and physical capital, hindering productivity and investment.

Institutional Development

The 1990s saw a sectoral approach to water management with multiple institutions involved, including the Ministry of Rural Affairs and Indigenous People and the National Water Authority. After social unrest caused by water privatization in Cochabamba and La Paz, the Evo Morales administration is undertaking institutional reform in water resources management, particularly in the irrigation sector. The reform aims to include indigenous and rural communities in decision-making, integrate technical and traditional knowledge, grant and register water rights, increase infrastructure efficiency, enhance water quality, and promote investment and financial sustainability.

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