Bahrain's Water Scarcity: Natural Or Man-Made?

Bahrain is a group of 40 islands in the southern waters of the Persian Gulf in the Middle East. It has one of the highest population densities in the world, with 1,472,223 people living on 785 square kilometres of land. Bahrain is facing a water crisis due to a combination of factors, including population growth, industrial development, commercial growth, tourism projects, and the impact of climate change. The country has very limited freshwater resources, with no rivers, perennial streams, or lakes. The main source of groundwater, the Damman aquifer, has been degraded by over-extraction, seawater intrusion, and pollution from oil spills and other industrial discharges. As a result, Bahrain relies heavily on water desalination, which is costly and has adverse environmental impacts.

Bahrain's high water consumption

The agricultural sector in Bahrain is a significant contributor to the country's high water consumption. Traditional irrigation methods, such as flood irrigation, are still commonly used and lead to high water losses and low irrigation efficiency. In 2016, flood irrigation was used on 65% of agricultural lands, while modern irrigation methods like drip and sprinkler irrigation were used on only 32% and 3% respectively. Additionally, the cultivation of water-intensive crops, such as alfalfa, has increased due to its tolerance to high salinity and strong local demand. Alfalfa cultivation accounts for about 70% of the total water consumption in the agricultural sector.

The country's water consumption is also influenced by the water-intensive processes of the industrial sector, which contributes significantly to the economy. In 2020-2022, 48% of the value added by sector came from industry.

Furthermore, Bahrain's water consumption per capita is high due to its small land area and high population density. The country is ranked as the second-largest user of water per square centimetre of land in the world, according to the Bahrain Economic Development Board.

To meet the increasing water demand, Bahrain has invested in desalination technology since the mid-1970s. Desalination plays a crucial role in water security for the nation, with 90% of its water being secured through desalination processes. The country also reuse treated municipal wastewater for agriculture and landscaping, which has been an important part of the water supply since the late 1990s.

Water quality issues

Bahrain, a group of 40 islands in the southern waters of the Persian Gulf, is facing a prominent problem with water quality despite efforts toward water security. The country's water quality is affected by multiple factors, including high salinity, over-extraction, seawater intrusion, and industrial activities. Here is a detailed overview of the water quality issues in Bahrain:

Salinization of Water Resources

Bahrain's principal aquifer, the Dammam aquifer, has experienced salinization due to over-extraction and the influx of water from adjacent brackish and saline water bodies. Salinization refers to the toxic buildup of salt content in water resources. The agricultural and domestic sectors' excessive use of the Dammam aquifer has led to a significant modification of water quality, causing various types of salinization, including brackish water up-flow, seawater intrusion, and the intrusion of sabkha water. This has degraded the quality of groundwater, which is a crucial source of water for the country.

Over-Extraction and Seawater Intrusion

Groundwater reserves in Bahrain, which include the Dammam aquifer and the Eastern Arabian Aquifer, suffer from severe degradation in both quality and quantity due to over-extraction and seawater intrusion. The increased demand for water, especially after the exploration of offshore reservoirs of crude oil and gas, has led to a sharp decrease in groundwater storage and a rise in seawater intrusion. As a result, more than half of the original groundwater reservoir has been degraded, and the annual extraction of groundwater is almost double the annual recharge rate, leading to an ever-increasing groundwater deficit.

Industrial Development and Pollution

The development of the oil industry in Bahrain has contributed to water quality issues. Oil pollution has contaminated natural groundwater reservoirs, and oil spills have further degraded groundwater quality. Additionally, the country's economy relies heavily on oil and gas, with oil comprising 85% of Bahraini budget revenues. The processing and refining of crude oil, along with other industrial activities, can contribute to water pollution and impact water quality.

Population Growth and Increased Demand

Bahrain has experienced a growing population, with a high population density and a significant migrant population. This population growth has increased the demand for water, putting strain on the country's limited freshwater resources. The rising population, coupled with industrial development and commercial growth, has led to a continuous increase in water demand, outpacing the country's natural water resources.

Inequality in Water Access

The Bahraini people's access to clean water is unequal, with water quality depending on proximity to the Alkalifa family, the ruling family of Bahrain. Areas inhabited by the Baharna community, who have faced discrimination, have poorer water quality compared to the location of the Alkalifa family palace. The water in these areas poses a high risk of contracting long-term diseases and other health-related problems.

To address these water quality issues, Bahrain has invested in desalination plants, improved sanitation infrastructure, and promoted water conservation. However, despite these efforts, improving water quality remains a top national concern.

The role of desalination

Bahrain is a group of islands located in the southern waters of the Persian Gulf in the Middle East. It is one of the world's largest users of water per square centimetre of land, and water quality is a prominent problem. The country's water-related infrastructure consists mainly of desalination and wastewater treatment plants.

Desalination plays a crucial role in water security for Bahrain. Ninety per cent of the country's water is secured through desalination processes. Bahrain has a history of water desalination, with the first modern desalination plants established in the 1950s. Today, the country has five operating desalination plants, with more under construction.

The Bahraini government has developed plans to meet the increasing water demand over the next 15 years. It is expected that by 2030, the total desalinated water production will increase by about 72%. All new desalination plants will be implemented and managed by the private sector.

Desalination is a cost-effective technology that can transform saltwater into potable freshwater. However, it is not without its drawbacks. Desalination plants have significant environmental costs, and the energy requirements are high. The ecological impacts of brine discharge from desalination plants are a particular concern, with the potential to destroy ecologically significant ecosystems in the Gulf.

Despite these concerns, desalination appears to be a "locked-in" technology that will define the water politics of the region in the near future. It is, therefore, important to develop strategies to reduce the carbon footprint of desalination and incorporate it into a holistic, whole-system approach to water infrastructure.

Water stress and scarcity

Bahrain is facing a water crisis due to a combination of factors, including water stress, scarcity, and poor water management.

Bahrain is located in an arid environment and has one of the highest population densities in the world, with a population of 1,472,233 people as of 2022. The country's water stress is exacerbated by a high demand for water, with the country ranked as the second-largest user of water per square centimetre of land globally. The growing population, currently at 89% urban, has led to a demand for freshwater that exceeds the country's natural resources.

The country's water scarcity is further intensified by its low endowment of freshwater resources. Bahrain's average annual rainfall is around 80-83 mm, and there are no rivers, perennial streams, or lakes. The country relies on groundwater, which is obtained from the lateral underflow of the Damman aquifer, a part of the extensive regional Eastern Arabian Aquifer system. However, this aquifer is shared with Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain is considered a discharge area, resulting in a limited safe groundwater yield.

The situation is further aggravated by over-extraction of groundwater for agricultural and municipal requirements, which has led to severe degradation in both the quality and quantity of groundwater reserves. Seawater intrusion, caused by excessive pumping, has contaminated more than half of the original groundwater reservoir. Additionally, the annual extraction of groundwater is almost double the annual recharge rate, leading to an ever-increasing groundwater deficit.

Water Management Challenges

Bahrain's water management challenges are influenced by various factors, including industrial development, commercial growth, tourism projects, and population increase. The country's sewage system is old, with sanitation facilities dating back to the 1970s, and the facilities for wastewater treatment are inadequate. While Bahrain has taken steps to address this issue by adding and expanding treatment plants, more needs to be done to keep up with the growing population's demands.

The country's oil industry has also contributed to water scarcity and pollution. Oil spills and other industrial discharges have degraded the quality of groundwater, and the development of the oil industry without regard for fertile land has resulted in the pollution of natural groundwater reservoirs.

To compensate for the lack of freshwater resources, Bahrain heavily relies on desalination, with 60% of its freshwater coming from this process. However, desalination plants pose environmental concerns and are among the costliest ways to produce water due to their high energy requirements. The increased use of desalination to meet water demands has led to a rise in water and energy costs, creating challenges for the population.

Population growth and migration

Bahrain's population is growing, with an estimated 1,620,418 people as of November 2024, according to the latest United Nations data. This represents a yearly growth rate of around 1.76%. The population is projected to increase by 31,507 people by the beginning of 2025. The growth is attributed to a positive natural increase, with the number of births exceeding deaths, and net migration.

The country's population density is high, with 2,115 people per square kilometre, or 5,477 people per square mile. The median age in Bahrain is 33.2 years, and the sex ratio is 1.67 males per 1,000 females.

Non-nationals make up more than half of Bahrain's population, with immigrants accounting for about 52.6% of the total. The majority of these immigrants come from South and Southeast Asia, including India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Indonesia. A smaller number of immigrants are from Western countries, such as the United Kingdom.

Bahrain's population is heavily urbanised, with 100% of the population living in urban areas as of 2024. The two principal cities, Manama and Al Muharraq, are the most populous.

The population growth and migration in Bahrain have had significant impacts on the country's water resources. The increasing population has led to a higher demand for water, which, coupled with industrial development, commercial growth, and tourism projects, has contributed to water scarcity.

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