Lexi Webster
The alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later Italy, which came to be known as the Triple Alliance, was formed in the years leading up to World War I. The alliance was surprising to many, given the differences between Germany and Austria-Hungary, including their opposing views on nationalism and the recent Austro-Prussian War. However, their shared distrust of Russia, which had gained considerable influence in the Balkans, united them in a common cause. This alliance played a significant role in the outbreak of World War I, as Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia led to a chain reaction of declarations of war, drawing in their respective allies and escalating the conflict.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Reason for Alliance | To counter the influence of the Russian Empire in the Balkans |
| Alliance Name | Dual Alliance (1879), Triple Alliance (1882) |
| Members | Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (joined in 1915) |
| Cause of World War I | Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary |
| Germany's Perception of Austria-Hungary | A relic of the past, inconsistent, decadent |
| Austria-Hungary's Perception of Germany | A junior partner, a great power |
| Military Cooperation | Limited, suggestive of rivalry |
| Central Powers | Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire |
| Opposition (Triple Entente) | France, Britain, Russia |
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What You'll Learn
The 1879 Dual Alliance between Vienna and Berlin
The Dual Alliance of 1879, formed on 7 October, was a pact between Austria-Hungary and the German Empire, which saw the two powers promise each other support in the event of an attack by Russia, and neutrality in the event of aggression by any other power. This was formalised in a treaty, with the following key tenets:
- Should either empire be attacked by Russia, the other was bound to come to their assistance with their full military strength.
- Should one of the signatories be attacked by another power, the other signatory was bound to observe at least a benevolent neutral attitude.
- The treaty was to be kept secret and only communicated to a third power upon a joint understanding between the two parties.
- The duration of the treaty was to be five years, with the two parties consulting one year before expiration to decide whether to continue or modify the treaty.
The treaty was part of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's system of alliances, which aimed to prevent Germany's isolation and preserve peace. Indeed, Bismarck saw the alliance as a way to prevent Russia from waging war, given that Russia would not attack both empires. The Dual Alliance was also a surprising development, given that Austria-Hungary and Germany shared the same language and culture, which more often than not pushed the two apart.
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Germany's economic Mitteleuropa plans
Mitteleuropa, or "central Europe", was a concept introduced in the 1840s by German and Austrian scholars and statesmen. The term was first theorised by Karl Ludwig von Bruck and Lorenz von Stein, and it referred to the creation of an interlocking economic confederation in Central Europe. The idea was adopted by liberal theorists like Friedrich List and Heinrich von Gagern, socialists, and later groups like the German National Liberal Party.
By 1914, Mitteleuropa had become a part of German hegemonic policy, with the aim of achieving economic and cultural hegemony over Central Europe. This was to be accomplished through the economic and financial exploitation of the region, direct annexations, and the creation of puppet states to serve as a buffer between Germany and Russia. German politician Friedrich Naumann supported this idea in his 1915 work, "Mitteleuropa". He envisioned a politically and economically integrated bloc subjected to German rule, with programs of Germanization and Hungarization, and the creation of German dependencies in Crimea and the Baltics.
The Mitteleuropa concept was further developed during World War I, with plans to include parts of Western Europe in the economic union, such as Belgium and, in the case of a total victory, France. The German occupation of Belgium was the first step in this process, with discussions of creating a "Duchy of Flanders" and a "Grand Duchy of Lorraine" as political units of future "localized" administration. However, these plans faced opposition from German left-wing parties and were eventually dropped. Instead, Germany opted to turn Belgium into a puppet state and force France to make strategic territorial concessions.
The ruling political and economic elites of Germany accepted the Mitteleuropa plan, believing it would bring economic benefits to the German working class through territorial annexation, a new economic sphere of influence, and the exploitation of conquered countries for Germany's material benefit. This partial realization of the Mitteleuropa plans was reflected in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which guaranteed Germany's economic and military domination over Ukraine.
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Mutual defence against Russia
The alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, known as the League of the Three Emperors, was formed in 1881 and extended in 1884 for 10 years. However, tensions between the three empires, particularly due to conflicting interests in the Balkans, led to the deterioration of their relationship. The Treaty of San Stefano in 1878, which gave Russia influence in the Balkans, outraged Austria-Hungary, which also had ambitions in the region. This led to the Treaty of Berlin, which reversed Russia's gains and provided Austria with compensation. As a result, Russo-German relations deteriorated, and Germany and Austria-Hungary were free to ally against Russia.
In the lead-up to World War I, Germany and Austria-Hungary's mutual defence against Russia became more pronounced. They shared a common interest in preventing Serbian access to the Adriatic, which they saw as a threat to their dominance in the region. Austria-Hungary's aggression towards Serbia and Russia's support for the latter heightened tensions. Germany's backing of Austria-Hungary in the conflict with Serbia further solidified their alliance against Russia.
The assassination of Franz Ferdinand in 1914 stoked old tensions and escalated the crisis beyond the Balkans. Austria-Hungary, with the guarantee of German support, issued an ultimatum to Serbia, intending to start a war. Serbia's reply, which rejected the involvement of Austro-Hungarian officials in the inquiry into the assassination, was deemed unacceptable, and Austria-Hungary declared war. This risked a wider European conflict, as Russia, seeing itself as Serbia's protector, ordered its forces to prepare for war on July 30, 1914.
Germany's war plans further reflected its mutual defence pact with Austria-Hungary against Russia. The Schlieffen Plan, adopted in 1905, projected Germany's first attack on France and Belgium, while Austria-Hungary covered the Russian front. Germany aimed to defeat France swiftly before turning its attention to Russia, recognising the latter's growing military power. This strategy was based on the belief that Russia's army would be stronger in subsequent years, and Germany wanted to strike before it was too late.
The outbreak of World War I saw Germany and Austria-Hungary advance into Russia on the Eastern Front in 1915. The coordination between the Central Powers, including Austria-Hungary and Germany, resulted in significant Romanian casualties and the fall of Romanian armies at Sibiu and Brașov. The Romanians were driven out of Transylvania, and the Central Powers gained control of valuable resources. Despite some setbacks, such as the Brusilov Offensive, which initially shattered the Austro-Hungarian lines, the mutual defence pact between Germany and Austria-Hungary played a crucial role in their military campaigns against Russia during the war.
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Austria-Hungary's decline and Germany's underestimation of its strength
The decline of Austria-Hungary, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was catalysed by World War I, with the empire already effectively dissolved by the signing of the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The immediate causes of the collapse of the state included the 1918 crop failure, general starvation, the economic crisis, and the flu pandemic, all of which left the majority of the population in a state of "advanced misery". The Austro-Hungarian Army was also severely weakened, with soldiers fighting without food and munition supplies and without political support.
The decline of the empire was also influenced by the widening gap between Hungarian and Austrian interests, and a history of chronic overcommitment, which led to a weakened foundation. The growth of internal social contradictions, the increasing bitterness of nationalists due to the suspension of civil rights and contemptuous treatment by the military, and the strengthening of leftist and liberal movements in Vienna and Budapest further contributed to the empire's disintegration. The Austro-Hungarian Empire, a multi-national constitutional monarchy, faced challenges as nationalist movements within its multiethnic realm pressed for full independence for various ethnic groups.
Additionally, the empire's defeat in the Second Italian War of Independence resulted in the loss of Northern Italian territories, marking a significant blow to its dominion. The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 led to the dissolution of the German Confederation and the exclusion of Austria, further weakening its position. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848, which was crushed with Austrian and Russian military force, also contributed to increasing resentment towards the Habsburg dominion.
As for Germany's underestimation of Austria-Hungary's strength, it is important to note that Germany and Austria-Hungary formed an alliance primarily against their common rival, Russia. This alliance was facilitated by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who sought to portray Germany as a peacemaker and preserve the European status quo. However, Germany's focus on Russia and its attempts to gain power and influence may have led to an underestimation of the internal weaknesses and social contradictions within Austria-Hungary. Bismarck's diplomatic manoeuvres, such as his role in the Congress of Berlin, aimed to balance relations and maintain alliances, but they may not have fully addressed the underlying issues within the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
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Italy's alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary
However, Italy's relationship with its allies was complex due to conflicting interests in the Balkans and the Adriatic and Aegean seas. Despite being a member of the Triple Alliance, Italy did not join Germany and Austria-Hungary, the Central Powers, when World War I broke out in 1914. Italy declared its neutrality, considering Austria-Hungary the aggressor in the conflict. Italy also had territorial ambitions in the Italian-speaking areas of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which further complicated its relationship with its allies.
During the pre-war years, Italy began aligning itself with the Entente powers, France and Great Britain, seeking military and economic support. Italy negotiated the secret Pact of London with the Entente powers, whereby it agreed to join the war in return for territorial gains at the expense of Austria-Hungary. On May 3, 1915, Italy resigned from the Triple Alliance and later declared war on Austria-Hungary, opening up a new theatre of war in the south for the Austro-Hungarian army. Italy's entry into the war was driven by both its nationalist aspirations and the complex diplomatic entanglements of the time.
Italy's participation in World War I resulted in significant losses and heavy fighting, particularly along its northern border with Austria-Hungary. Despite winning several battles, Italy suffered setbacks, such as the Battle of Caporetto in 1917, which forced them to retreat. However, they successfully halted the Central Powers' offensive at the Battle of Monte Grappa in November 1917 and the Battle of the Piave River in May 1918. Italy's involvement in the war ended in November 1918, with a mobilized force of over 5 million soldiers, having contributed to significant engagements on the Western Front as well.
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Frequently asked questions
Germany and Austria-Hungary formed an alliance in 1879, driven by their common distrust of Russia.
The Dual Alliance was a defensive alliance, with both powers promising each other support in the case of an attack by Russia.
In 1882, Italy joined Germany and Austria-Hungary, forming the Triple Alliance.
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