Bolivian Culture's Violent Celebrations: Understanding The Tradition

Bolivia is a country in South America with a rich cultural heritage that has been shaped predominantly by Catholic Spaniards, traditional Andean culture, and ancient indigenous groups. The country's culture and customs are unique, and you will find nothing like it anywhere else in the world.

Bolivian culture is heavily influenced by its history, which can be divided into three distinct periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican. The country has 36 different indigenous cultures, each with its own unique traditions and customs but all proud to be under the name of Bolivia. The national culture is an amalgam of Hispanic and pre-Hispanic elements, with three cultural traditions: Quechua/Aymara, Spanish or Hispanic, and several dozen small Amazonian ethnic groups in the eastern lowlands.

While there is no single Bolivian Culture, one thing that stands out is the country's celebration of violence, particularly against women and girls. Bolivia has the highest rate of sexual violence in Latin America, with 70% of Bolivian women being survivors of sexual or physical violence. The country also has some of the lowest reporting rates for these crimes due to a culture of shame and silence, with survivors facing tremendous barriers to accessing justice. This is partly due to the country's highly patriarchal society, which values machismo or manliness.

Machismo and the concept of manliness

Machismo, or the concept of "manliness", is a staple of life in Bolivia, and it has severe consequences for women. This phenomenon is not unique to Bolivia, as most foreigners who have travelled around Latin America will be familiar with the concept. Machismo is essentially assertively strong male pride, which leaves women being seen as the weaker gender. It tries to explain that men are naturally violent and justify these violent actions by saying that they are to be expected from all men. This connection to the biological can make the concept of machismo more credible, even though scientists have proven that there is no biological mandate behind male aggression.

Machismo can take on many forms and has been integrated into the lives of all those living in Latin America. Examples of this would be general feelings of superiority for men, feeling the need to defend their families, and not being involved in the cooking or cleaning within their homes. While most female tourists will only experience this as being catcalled on the street or not being taken seriously in conversation, machismo can be problematic on a much larger scale. It can involve normalising aggression, homophobia, keeping women out of politics, and even domestic or sexual violence.

Bolivia has been struggling with this issue and has the highest rate of domestic abuse in Latin America. Over 50% of women in Bolivia experience abuse of some kind within their lifetime, often by their spouse or partner. This abuse can take on various forms, including emotional, physical, or sexual assault. Many women involved in politics often receive threats of violence to scare them into resigning from their positions or to force their hand in political decisions. Even outside of Bolivia, many women politicians in Latin America are killed after ignoring these threats.

The abuse stems from challenges presented within the male-dominated system itself. Women get caught up in a cycle of violence that often begins with abuse in their youth. Women feel trapped in abusive relationships due to financial dependence. Especially in rural areas, education is not as easily accessible, and societal norms suggest that a woman's role involves domestic activity and helping around the home as opposed to working for an income. Machismo structures enforce these ideals, convincing women to focus on the family and home starting from a young age. Almost 20% of women in Bolivia are illiterate, and this rate is even higher in rural areas. This would create difficulties for women attempting to leave their abusers and find sustainable jobs to support themselves and their families.

Bolivia has the highest amount of indigenous people in Latin America. For those who choose to remain in rural areas, they have fewer resources available to them in terms of educational or work prospects. Although those of indigenous origins are in the majority, they have still been subjected to discrimination in the workforce. While the official language in Bolivia is Spanish, many indigenous people only speak Quechua, Aymara, or other native languages. Not only does this inhibit their ability to work in certain places, but they may not fully comprehend the governmental laws and their rights.

Bolivia has passed laws to protect women from abuse, such as the Law Against the Harassment of and Political Violence Against Women in 2012, and the Comprehensive Law to Guarantee Women a Life Free of Violence in 2013. However, rates of violence against women have not diminished. Many women are still afraid to seek help from these institutions due to the stigma around sexual abuse and shame and silence in the culture.

The prevalence of sexual violence against women

Bolivia has the highest rate of sexual violence in Latin America, with 70% of women suffering some form of physical or sexual abuse. This abuse can take many forms, including rape, domestic violence, harassment, and objectification, and is overwhelmingly committed by men.

The country also has some of the lowest reporting rates for these crimes, with victims facing barriers to accessing justice. Consent is not defined in the Bolivian penal code, and survivors must prove "intimidation, physical violence, or psychological violence". This discourages the vast majority of survivors from seeking justice.

Adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable, with 1 in 3 experiencing sexual violence before the age of 18. In the first six months of 2015, 94% of sexual violence cases against minors involved a girl under 18. Girls and teenagers are also at high risk of experiencing sexualised violence, with 34% suffering abuse before the age of 18, often at the hands of family members, teachers, or neighbours.

The impact of sexual violence is devastating, with Bolivia having one of the highest adolescent pregnancy rates in Latin America. Securing an abortion is challenging for many young girls, and they are often forced to carry the pregnancy to term, compounding the trauma of sexual violence.

To address this issue, Equality Now is working to repeal Bolivia's estupro law, which imposes lesser penalties for perpetrators who rape 14- to 18-year-old adolescents than for those who rape children or adult women. They are also seeking broader legal reforms to prevent sexual assaults, establish a definition of sexual consent, and ensure that victims of sexual violence can access justice and services.

The legal system's failure to protect women

The legal system in Bolivia has been criticised for failing to protect women from violence and for perpetuating a culture of impunity. Despite progressive laws and international agreements to eliminate violence against women, the country has been ineffective in tackling the issue.

One significant factor contributing to the legal system's failure is the lack of proper implementation and enforcement of laws. Activists and women's groups have pointed out that new laws aimed at protecting women, such as the 2012 law criminalising violence against women in politics and the 2013 law identifying 15 specific types of violence against women, are not being effectively enforced. Poor publicity of these laws has been identified as a contributing factor, as lawyers may be unaware of them and therefore fail to use them in court. Additionally, officials, often male, may choose not to enforce the laws due to patriarchal attitudes and a lack of commitment to gender equality.

The judicial system in Bolivia has also been criticised for revictimisation, which further deters women from seeking justice. In the case of Brisa de Angulo Losada, who was repeatedly raped by her cousin, the Bolivian state was deemed a second aggressor by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights due to the insensitive and inhumane treatment she received during the investigation and the multiple retellings of her assault that were required by officials. Unfortunately, her experience is not unique, as experts highlight that revictimisation is commonplace in the judicial system, with police officers, judges, and magistrates often contributing to it.

Another issue within the legal system is the lack of access to justice for survivors of sexual violence. The onus is on survivors to prove "intimidation, physical violence, or psychological violence" to obtain justice, which can be challenging and traumatic. Additionally, the absence of a clear definition of consent in the Bolivian penal code further complicates cases of sexual violence. Judges have discretionary power and often exploit loopholes, such as reducing rape charges to the lesser charge of estupro (sexual violence against adolescents), which has a more lenient sentence.

The failure of the legal system to protect women from violence has severe consequences, including high rates of adolescent pregnancy and maternal mortality, as well as deterring women from participating in politics and seeking elected office.

The influence of Catholicism

Catholicism was introduced to Bolivia during the Spanish conquest, with priests accompanying the first military expeditions. The church's organisation, personnel, and role in society were all defined early in the colonial era. Pope Julius III created the La Plata bishopric in 1552, followed by those of La Paz and Santa Cruz in the early 17th century. A plethora of religious orders, including Franciscans, Mercedarians, Dominicans, and Jesuits, joined diocesan priests in the colonial ministry. The clergy were largely of European origin, with the few mestizos who joined usually admitted as lay brothers rather than priests.

The patronato real gave the Spanish throne and colonial authorities significant powers in church affairs, with appointments of clergy and bishops requiring the approval of civil authorities. The relationship between church and state was mutual and intimate, with each institution exerting great influence on the other. The colonial church was also an extremely wealthy institution, owning extensive tracts of land and serving as quasi-official moneylenders to the landed elite and high-ranking officeholders. By the end of the colonial era, the church had become the dominant financial power in Bolivia through a combination of money lending and real estate investments.

In the decades following the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), the Catholic Church attempted to play a more active role in Bolivian social life. The country's bishops, organised into the Bolivian Bishops Conference (Conferencia Episcopal Boliviana), issued pastoral letters condemning the living conditions of peasants and workers. Many priests, brothers, and sisters took a more direct political stance, with some actively defending workers' rights. This led to the formation of Church and Society in Latin America-Bolivia (Iglesia y Sociedad en América Latina-Bolivia – ISAL-Bolivia), which endorsed socialism as the only means of achieving justice.

The Catholic Church in Bolivia has historically wielded enormous influence, with religious beliefs and practices constituting a system of "popular religion" that encompasses formal elements of Catholicism and, increasingly, Protestantism, combined with pre-Hispanic Andean beliefs and rituals. The prevailing religious practices centre around the Cult of the Virgin Mary and devotion to Pachamama, the earth mother.

The celebration of violence in religious festivals

Bolivia is a country in South America with a rich cultural heritage. The cultural development of the country is divided into three distinct periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican. The country has several important archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings from several pre-Columbian cultures.

Pagan rites from the pre-Columbian era are still common during the religious festivals of the Natives. The clothing used during the festivals is reminiscent of the dress of pre-Columbian Indians and 16th-century Spaniards. The annual carnival of Oruro is one of the great folkloric events of South America, as are the lesser-known indigenous Anata Andina, the "carnival" at Tarabuco (Pujllay), and the Tinku - fertility rites held at Macha every 3rd of May.

Many dances and songs contain elements from both the native and European cultures. Caporales is the most popular Bolivian dance of present times, and in a few decades, it has developed into an enormously popular dance, not only in the Highlands where it originated but also in the Lowlands and in Bolivian communities outside the country.

Another example of the celebration of violence in religious festivals in Bolivia is the Dia de los Muertos (Day of the Dead), which is celebrated on the 1st and 2nd of November. During this festival, the dead are believed to form part of the sociocultural universe of the living. Ritual tables with food and drink are offered to the souls of the recently deceased, who are expected to visit their kin. Funerary rituals include the washing of the body and clothes of the deceased, the purchasing and preparation of the casket, and the marshaling of large quantities of coca, food, and drink for the all-night wake and subsequent burial.

In addition to these festivals, there are also other religious celebrations in Bolivia that incorporate violent elements. For example, during the Alasitas festival, devotees buy miniature versions of their dreams and offer them to Ekeko, the Aymaran God of Abundance, hoping he will bring good fortune and wealth into their lives. While this festival is not inherently violent, the purchase of miniature dollar and euro notes over the local currency can be seen as a form of economic violence against the local economy.

Overall, the celebration of violence in religious festivals in Bolivia is a complex and multifaceted aspect of the country's cultural heritage, incorporating indigenous, Catholic, and pagan elements.

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