Leslie Massey
Russia and Austria-Hungary had a complex relationship, with shifting alliances and competing interests in the Balkans. Initially, Russia supported Austria during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848-49, but their relationship soured during the Crimean War when Austria adopted a hostile neutrality towards Russia and sided with the Anglo-French coalition. Russia's neutrality during the Austro-Prussian War contributed to Austria's defeat and loss of influence. The major source of tension was the Eastern Question, regarding the weakening Ottoman Empire and its rebellious Christian subjects. Austria-Hungary and Russia competed for influence, with Russia seeking to unite all Slavonic-speaking peoples under its leadership, while Austria-Hungary pursued an anti-Slavic policy. Russian intelligence infiltrated the Austro-Hungarian Army, and their conflicting foreign policies and desires in the Balkans further strained their relationship.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Russia's policy towards Slavic peoples | Russia saw itself as the natural leader and protector of the Slavic peoples. |
| Austria-Hungary's policy towards Slavic peoples | Austria-Hungary pursued an anti-Slavic policy domestically and abroad. |
| Russia's foreign policy in the Balkans | Russia wanted to increase its role in the Balkans at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. |
| Austria-Hungary's foreign policy in the Balkans | Austria-Hungary wanted to increase its role in the Balkans at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. |
| Russia's intelligence operations | Russia infiltrated the Austro-Hungarian Army at the highest levels. |
| Historical relationship | Russia and Austria-Hungary had a close relationship during and after the Napoleonic Wars, but this deteriorated during the Crimean War. |
| Diplomatic alliances | Russia formed an alliance with France and Austria-Hungary formed an alliance with Germany and Italy (the Triple Alliance). |
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What You'll Learn
- Russia's pan-Slavist policy: Russia wanted to unite all Slavic peoples under the Tsar
- Eastern Question: Russia and Austria-Hungary disagreed on how to handle the weakening Ottoman Empire
- Russian intelligence infiltration: Russia infiltrated the Austro-Hungarian Army, accessing their plans
- Austro-Prussian War: Russia's neutrality contributed to Austria's defeat and loss of influence
- Franco-Russian Alliance: France and Russia allied against the Triple Alliance, which included Austria-Hungary
Russia's pan-Slavist policy: Russia wanted to unite all Slavic peoples under the Tsar
Russia's pan-Slavist policy, which aimed to unite all Slavic peoples under the Tsar, was a significant source of tension between Russia and Austria-Hungary in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Pan-Slavism, a movement that emerged in the first half of the 19th century, recognized a shared ethnic background among the various Slav peoples of eastern and east-central Europe. It sought to unite these peoples to achieve common cultural and political goals. The movement was particularly popular in Russia, with many Pan-Slavists looking to the country for leadership and protection from Austro-Hungarian and Turkish rule. Russian Pan-Slavists, however, modified the theoretical foundations of the movement.
The roots of Pan-Slavism can be traced back to the influence of German Romantics like Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Johann Gottfried von Herder, who celebrated the Slavic Volksgeist. In the early 19th century, these ideas significantly impacted Czech, Slovak, and other Slavic intellectuals and scholars. The first Pan-Slavic Congress was convened in Prague in 1848 by the Czech historian František Palacký, marking a significant development in the movement's evolution.
While the Russian government did not officially endorse Pan-Slavism, some key members of its foreign department, including its representatives in Constantinople and Belgrade, were ardent supporters. These individuals played a role in drawing both Serbia and Russia into wars against the Ottoman Empire in 1876–77. Additionally, in the late 19th century, Russians came to dominate the discourse surrounding Pan-Slavism, utilizing it as a tool to expand their influence over other Slavic peoples. This caused concern in Austria-Hungary, which feared that Pan-Slavism would threaten the empire by uniting all Slavs under Russian leadership.
The rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Russia over the Balkans and the weakening Ottoman Empire, known as the Eastern Question, became a significant source of tension. Austria-Hungary, concerned about the potential implications of Pan-Slavism, pursued an anti-Slavic policy both domestically and abroad. This rivalry contributed to the diplomatic alliances that eventually led to World War I.
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Eastern Question: Russia and Austria-Hungary disagreed on how to handle the weakening Ottoman Empire
The "Eastern Question" was a popular term used in the final decades of the 19th century to describe the potential power vacuum that would occur if the Ottoman Empire lost control of its Balkan provinces. This would inevitably lead to confrontations between Austria-Hungary and Russia over Ottoman territory, and between Russia and Britain over Russian access to the Mediterranean. The term was popularised in 1876 with the publication of William Gladstone's pamphlet "The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East".
The weakening of the Ottoman Empire had begun in the 17th century, with the power of the Sultan declining during the reign of Sultan Süleyman (1520-1566). In 1683, the Ottomans lost the Battle of Vienna to the combined forces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria. The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 forced the Ottoman Empire to cede many of its Central European possessions, including parts of Hungary. The Ottoman Empire's westward expansion was arrested, and it never posed a serious threat to Austria again.
In the 18th century, the Russo-Turkish Wars brought the Eastern Question to the attention of the European powers, particularly Russia and Britain. Russia stood to benefit from the decline of the Ottoman Empire, while Austria-Hungary and the United Kingdom deemed the preservation of the Empire to be in their best interests. During the Crimean War, Karl Marx wrote that the main factor of the Eastern Question was Russian imperialism towards Turkey, with Britain's interests lying with the Ottoman Empire as Turkey was a barrier that would protect the rest of Europe.
In the 1870s, uprisings in Ottoman-held Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria resulted in a war between the Serbs and Turks, and the Eastern Crisis (1875-1878). Russia reached an agreement with Austria-Hungary for the partial dismemberment of Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia subsequently invaded Ottoman Bulgaria. In 1877, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The Russians had secured Austrian neutrality with the Reichstadt Agreement of July 1876, under which any captured Ottoman territories would be partitioned between the Russian and Austria-Hungarian Empires. However, when Russia threatened to conquer Constantinople, British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli urged Austria and Germany to ally against Russia. The Treaty of Berlin of 1878 adjusted the boundaries of the new states in the Ottoman Empire's favour, with Bulgaria being divided into two states to prevent it from falling under Russian domination. Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to Austrian control, and the Ottoman island of Cyprus was ceded to Britain.
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Russian intelligence infiltration: Russia infiltrated the Austro-Hungarian Army, accessing their plans
Russia's invasion of Hungary to suppress the revolutions and restore Habsburg sovereignty, along with its hostile neutrality during the Crimean War, contributed to tensions with Austria-Hungary. By 1905, Russian state intelligence had successfully infiltrated the Austro-Hungarian Army, accessing their plans and capabilities. This infiltration reached the highest echelons of the K.u.K. army leadership, and Austria-Hungary's military plans were exposed. This intelligence breach occurred during a period of competition between the two empires for influence in the Balkans, particularly regarding the declining Ottoman Empire.
The Austro-Hungarian Army, despite possessing some early examples of armored vehicles, was considered less modern and well-equipped than its Prussian counterparts. Its organization was rigid, and its administration was inefficient. The officers relied on outdated tactics from the 1860s and 1870s, and the army lacked sufficient artillery and modern transportation. These weaknesses were exposed during the Austro-Hungarian–German advance into Russia in 1915, where they suffered heavy losses.
The Brusilov Offensive, launched by the Russians in June 1916, further exacerbated the situation. This offensive was the largest and most lethal of its kind during World War I, inflicting irreparable losses on the Austro-Hungarian Army and inducing Romania to join the war against them. The Russians, led by General Aleksei Brusilov, amassed four armies totaling 40 infantry divisions and 15 cavalry divisions. They fielded 148 infantry battalions against the 53 battalions of the Austro-Hungarian Fourth Army. The Austro-Hungarian forces were unable to withstand the onslaught, and the offensive resulted in a significant victory for the Russians, contributing to a morale boost for their troops.
The infiltration of the Austro-Hungarian Army by Russian intelligence played a crucial role in Russia's military successes against Austria-Hungary. With access to their plans and capabilities, Russia was able to exploit the weaknesses of the Austro-Hungarian military and launch effective offensives, ultimately contributing to the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire during World War I.
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Austro-Prussian War: Russia's neutrality contributed to Austria's defeat and loss of influence
The Austro-Prussian War, also known as the Seven Weeks' War, was fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, with both sides aided by various allies within the German Confederation. Prussia also had Italy as an ally, linking the conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. The war resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states and the abolition of the German Confederation.
The war was part of the wider rivalry between Austria and Prussia, and its major result was a shift in power among the German states away from Austria and towards Prussia. Prussia's victory led to the unification of all the northern German states in the North German Confederation, which excluded Austria and the other southern German states.
Russia's neutrality during the Austro-Prussian War contributed to Austria's defeat and loss of influence in several ways. Firstly, Prussia had supported Russia during the January Uprising in Poland, signing the Alvensleben Convention of February 1863, while Austria had not. This created ill will between Austria and Russia, making it unlikely for Russia to side with Austria during the war. Secondly, during the Crimean War, Austria had maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards Russia, supporting the Anglo-French coalition without going to war. This stance strained Russo-Austrian relations and led to Russia's neutrality during the Austro-Prussian War.
Austria's defeat in the war was a significant blow to Habsburg rule, and as a result, they gave in to Hungarian demands for autonomy, leading to the founding of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 transformed the Empire into the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. This compromise was a direct consequence of Austria's loss of influence in the German-speaking lands due to Russia's neutrality during the war.
It is worth noting that Russia's intelligence infiltration of the Austro-Hungarian Army in 1905 and during World War I also contributed to Austria-Hungary's challenges in maintaining influence and ultimately losing the war by November 1914.
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Franco-Russian Alliance: France and Russia allied against the Triple Alliance, which included Austria-Hungary
The Franco-Russian Alliance, also known as the Dual Entente or Russo-French Rapprochement, was a military alliance formed by agreements between 1891 and 1894. It was a response to the formation of the Triple Alliance, which included the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Kingdom of Italy. The Triple Alliance was a military bloc headed by Germany, which France and Russia viewed as a threat.
The Franco-Russian Alliance was underpinned by common interests and a desire to preserve peace. The alliance stipulated that if France was attacked by Germany or Italy supported by Germany, Russia would employ all its available forces to attack Germany. Conversely, if Russia was attacked by Germany or Austria-Hungary supported by Germany, France would deploy its forces against Germany. Both countries agreed to mobilize their armies and transport them to their frontiers in the event of mobilization by the Triple Alliance. France and Russia also agreed to cooperate and share information regarding the armies of the Triple Alliance.
The alliance was strengthened by financial ties, with Russia receiving significant loans from France, leading to economic dependence on French imperialism. This financial relationship, along with the common goal of countering the Triple Alliance, contributed to the formation of the diplomatic alliances that eventually led to World War I.
It is worth noting that the Triple Entente, which included France, Russia, and Britain, was not an alliance of mutual defense like the Franco-Russian Alliance. The Triple Entente was a coalition that fought in World War I against the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
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