South American Unity: Why Didn't Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia Merge?

Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia share a common history as part of the Inca Empire and later the Spanish Empire. During Spanish colonialism, Peru was governed by the Viceroyalty of Peru in Lima, while Bolivia was split between the Viceroyalty of Peru and the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in Buenos Aires. Despite their shared history and cultural characteristics, there are several reasons why these three countries may not unite. Firstly, there have been territorial disputes and conflicts between Ecuador and Peru, with both countries signing a comprehensive peace accord in 1998 to end their border dispute. Additionally, the idea of being governed from Quito may not be well-received by Peruvians and Bolivians, who consider Lima or Cuzco as more central and suitable capitals. Furthermore, each country has its own unique political, economic, and social dynamics, with varying levels of government corruption, economic dependence, and relations with the United States. Uniting these three nations would require overcoming these differences and finding a consensus on governance and leadership, which may prove challenging.

Ecuador and Peru had territorial disputes until 1998

Ecuador and Peru have historically disputed the demarcation of their common border. The conflict had its origins in each country's interpretation of the Real Cedulas Spain used to define its colonial territories in the Americas. After independence, all of Spain's former colonies agreed to proclaim their limits based on the uti possidetis juris principle, which regarded the Spanish borders of 1810 as the borders of the new republics. However, conflicting claims and disagreements between the newly formed countries escalated to the point of armed conflict on several occasions.

The Ecuadorian–Peruvian territorial dispute was ongoing until the signing of the Rio de Janeiro Protocol on January 29, 1942, which ended the dispute de jure. However, the treaty was questioned, and Ecuador and Peru went to war on two more occasions: the Paquisha War in 1981, and the Cenepa War in 1995.

On October 26, 1998, Ecuador and Peru signed a comprehensive peace accord that established a framework for ending their border dispute. Formal demarcation of the border regions started on May 13, 1999, and the agreement was ratified without opposition by the congresses of both nations, finally bringing a definitive end to the dispute.

The conflict resolution was historic, involving many actors working over many decades to achieve a settlement to a long-standing dispute. The peace accord was also significant because Ecuador and Peru share a language, a culture, a religious preference, social and ethnic diversity, and comparable economic difficulties. They are also both democracies, which puts into question the idea that democracies do not go to war with each other.

Peru and Bolivia were briefly united from 1836 to 1839

The idea of uniting Peru and Bolivia was proposed by Simón Bolívar, who envisioned creating a powerful nation in South America. This proposal found support among influential political leaders in both countries, including Andrés de Santa Cruz, the president of Bolivia, and various figures in Peru such as Francisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro, José María Pando, Manuel Lorenzo de Vidaurre, and Agustín Gamarra. These leaders shared the goal of reintegrating the two countries, differing only in their preferred form of union, whether it be a confederation or a merger.

The path towards unification began with political instability and a coup d'état in Peru in 1835. This led to a civil war between the self-declared president Felipe Santiago Salaverry and the constitutional president Luis José de Orbegoso. Orbegoso allowed Santa Cruz to send Bolivian troops through the Peruvian border, and after Salaverry's defeat in 1836, assemblies were established to create the Peru–Bolivian Confederation.

The confederation was officially established on October 28, 1836, and consisted of three states: North Peru, South Peru, and the Bolivian State. Santa Cruz became the Supreme Protector of the confederation while also serving as the president of Bolivia. The geographical boundaries of the confederation were fluid, with Bolivia incorporating disputed territories in northern Argentina.

However, the Peru–Bolivian Confederation faced opposition from neighbouring countries, particularly Chile and Argentina, who saw it as a potential military and economic threat. Chile, in particular, was concerned about the competition for control of commercial routes in the Pacific and the rivalry between the ports of Callao and Valparaíso. Argentina, on the other hand, had a territorial dispute with Bolivia over the territory of Tarija.

The opposition led to conflicts and eventually open warfare. Chile formed an alliance with Peruvian soldiers opposed to the confederation, and Argentina also entered the conflict, declaring war on the confederation. Despite initial victories, such as Santa Cruz's forces defeating an Argentine army in 1837, the confederation ultimately faced defeat.

The turning point came with the Battle of Yungay on January 20, 1839, where the confederate forces were defeated by the Chilean-Peruvian forces led by General Manuel Bulnes. This defeat marked the end of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation, and Santa Cruz went into exile. Agustín Gamarra assumed the presidency of Peru and attempted to subjugate Bolivia, but this effort ended with his death in 1841.

In summary, the union between Peru and Bolivia from 1836 to 1839 was a short-lived endeavour that arose from shared historical ties and political ambitions. However, it faced strong opposition from neighbouring countries, ultimately leading to its dissolution and a period of internal conflict for both nations.

Ecuador and Peru had differing views on the validity of treaties

Ecuador and Peru's differing interpretations of the validity of treaties can be traced back to their independence from Spain. The newly independent countries agreed to proclaim their limits based on the principle of uti possidetis juris, which regarded the Spanish borders of 1810 as the borders of the new republics. However, conflicting claims and disagreements between Ecuador and Peru escalated to the point of armed conflict on several occasions.

One key dispute centred around the Real Cédula of 1802, a decree by the Spanish Crown which transferred control of the Government and Commandancy General of Maynas and the Governorate of Quijos from the Audience of Quito to the Viceroyalty of Peru. This decree was questioned by Ecuador, which argued that it was not registered in the official cedulario and that its contents could not be found in the Recopilacion de Indias. Ecuador also claimed that the decree was not clear on whether the transfer of administrative power was purely military, ecclesiastical, or territorial in nature.

Another dispute arose from the interpretation of the Cedula Real of 1803, which gave Peru the right to claim Guayaquil and the coast of Ecuador. Ecuador argued that this decree only dealt with mercantile and military jurisdictions and did not change political borders.

The Rio de Janeiro Protocol, signed in 1942, aimed to end the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute. However, Ecuador later questioned the validity of this treaty as well, arguing that it was imposed by military force while Ecuadorian towns were under occupation. Ecuador also claimed that the protocol did not grant it direct land access to the Marañón and Amazon rivers, which it had long been seeking.

Despite these differing views on the validity of treaties, Ecuador and Peru eventually signed a comprehensive peace accord in 1998, ending their border dispute and establishing a framework for peaceful relations.

Peru and Bolivia's union was seen as a military and economic threat by Chile and Argentina

The Peru–Bolivian Confederation was a short-lived state that existed between 1836 and 1839. The union was seen as a military and economic threat by Chile and Argentina, who opposed its formation. The potential power of this confederation aroused opposition from Argentina and, above all, Chile, due not only to its size but also to the perceived threat that such a rich state signified for the area. The union's geographical limits varied over time, with Bolivia occupying and incorporating disputed territories in northern Argentina in 1838.

Chilean statesman Diego Portales, who was the power behind President José Joaquín Prieto Vial, was concerned that the new Confederacy would break the regional balance of power and even threaten Chilean independence. Chile and the Argentine Confederation, both distrusting this new and powerful political entity, declared war on the Peru–Bolivian Confederation, although they waged war separately.

The Chilean Congress sent Mariano Egaña as a plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty based on several points, including the dissolution of the Confederation. Argentina, on the other hand, declared war in support of the northern province of Tucumán, which was threatened by the forces of Marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz, the leader of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation.

The rivalry between the ports of Callao and Valparaíso also worsened as a result of the establishment of the Confederation. A tariff war soon began between Peru and Chile. Peru raised its tariff on Chilean wheat from 12 cents to 3 pesos, a 2,400% increase, and Chile responded by raising tariffs on Peruvian sugar by the same amount.

The Peruvian–Bolivian Confederation's dissolution came about after the Chilean-Peruvian forces of the so-called Restorative Army, led by General Manuel Bulnes, obtained a decisive victory in the Battle of Yungay in 1839. The Confederate defeat led to the exile of Santa Cruz and the restoration of Peru and Bolivia.

Ecuador and Peru's territorial dispute was due to conflicting interpretations of colonial territories

The dispute was a result of differing interpretations of the Real Cedulas Spain used to define its colonial territories in the Americas. After independence, all of Spain's former colonies agreed to base their borders on the uti possidetis juris principle, which regarded the Spanish borders of 1810 as the borders of the new republics. However, conflicting claims and disagreements between the newly formed countries led to armed conflicts on several occasions.

The dispute centred around whether Ecuador's territory extended beyond the Andes to the Marañon (Amazon) river, including the Amazonian basin. Ecuador based its claims on the unmodified Cédula de 1740, while Peru based its claims on the Cédula Real of 1802, which gave them rights to claim territory in the Amazon region, and the Cédula of 1803, which gave them the right to claim Guayaquil and the coast of Ecuador.

The dispute led to several conflicting treaties being signed between Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and Brazil, and resulted in multiple wars between Ecuador and Peru during the 19th and 20th centuries, including the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War of 1857-1860, the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War of 1941, the Paquisha War of 1981, and the Cenepa War of 1995.

The conflict was finally resolved in 1998 with the signing of a comprehensive peace accord that established a framework for ending the border dispute. Formal demarcation of the border regions began in 1999, and the agreement was ratified without opposition by both nations, bringing a definitive end to the dispute.

Frequently asked questions